FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


FRONTISPIECE. 


jw,  •»*K-H^. 

«t  Jf'~   '"       '^"  '*.- '-^ir""*« 


(Courtesy  of  Frank  Wamsley,  Glendora,  California) 

ORANGES  AND  SNOW  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

PUBLICATION  245 
BOTANICAL  SERIES  VOL.  VI,  No.  2 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

PART  II 


BY 


JAMES  B.  McNAiR 

Assistant  Curator  of  Economic  Botany 


B.  E.  DAHLGREN 

Acting  Curator,  Department  of  Botany 
EDITOR 


Til* 


OF  THE 

1928 

ILLINOIS 


CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 

November  14,  1927 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 
BY  FIELD  MUSEUM  PRESS 


CONTENTS 

PACK 

LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

CHAPTER 

XI.    ECONOMICS  OF  THE  CITRUS  PRODUCT  INDUSTRY 213 

Citrus  fruit  production — basic  facts  relating  to  the  California 
products  industry;  the  lemon  products  industry  in  Italy;  future 
of  the  American  citrus  products  industry;  the  cost  per  ton  of 
handling  cull  lemons  in  the  United  States;  comparative  labor 
costs  of  handling  cull  lemons  and  of  manufacturing  by-products 
in  the  United  States  and  Italy;  summary.  Limes  and  lemons  as 
sources  of  citric  acid  and  essential  oils.  Extent  of  production  of 
citrus  products;  composition  of  the  two  fruits;  method  of  culti- 
vating limes :  selection  of  land,  preparation  of  land  and  planting, 
nursery  work,  after-cultivation  and  manuring,  pests  and  diseases, 
time  of  maturity  and  yields,  harvesting,  fresh  limes ;  the  produc- 
tion of  lime  products  in  Sicily :  yields  and  profits ;  lemon  and  lime 
yields  and  profits  contrasted:  selling  basis  of  lime  juice  and  oils, 
gross  and  net  values;  the  marketing  of  citrus  products:  methods 
of  selling  in  Sicily,  West  Indian  methods,  citrus  products  on  the 
London  markets,  defects  in  West  Indian  products,  lime  and  lemon 
oils,  oils  of  orange ;  summary.  European  citric  acid  production — 
calcium  citrate ;  citric  acid.  Cost  of  manufacture  of  orange  vine- 
gar— equipment;  material;  production  costs;  comparison  with 
apple  vinegar.  Citrus  oil  prices — lemon  oil,  orange  oil,  oil  of 
bergamot,  oil  of  limes,  oil  of  Neroli. 

XII.  THE  INDUSTRY  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 241 

Citrus  oil  production.  Imports  of  citrus  oils — lemon  oil,  orange 
oil,  oil  of  bergamot,  oil  of  limes,  Neroli  or  orange  flower  oil, 
cedrat  oil.  The  citrate  and  citric  acid  industry.  Imports  of  ci- 
trate of  lime  and  citric  acid.  Tariff  problems.  California — the 
manufacture  of  citric  acid  from  lemons:  extraction  of  juice,  pre- 
cipitation of  calcium  citrate,  decomposition  of  citrate,  concentra- 
tration  of  liquors,  purification  of  crude  acid,  organic  color,  lead, 
copper,  tin,  and  antimony,  iron  and  nickel,  sulphuric  acid,  calcium 
sulphate,  carbonized  filter-eel,  crystallization  treatment  of  old 
liquor,  quality  of  product,  use  of  metric  system;  the  industry  in 
the  San  Diego  district ;  in  the  San  Bernardino  district ;  in  the  Los 
Angeles  district.  Florida.  Mexico. 

XIII.  THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  WEST  INDIES  AND  NEIGHBORING  ISLANDS.  .261 
British  West  Indies — island  statistics :  Bahamas,  Jamaica,  Leeward 
Islands,  St.  Lucia,  Trinidad  and  Tobago;  Jamaican  orange  oil: 
method  of  production,  method  of  shipment,  testing  and  shipping 


vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

by  buyers  and  shippers,  costs,  exports,  supply  and  demand,  bitter 
orange  oil ;  lime  cultivation ;  the  lime  industry  in  St.  Lucia ;  ex- 
traction of  lime  juice  by  milling;  lime  juice  for  cordials  and  flav- 
oring; lime  juice  discoloration;  citrate  of  lime  and  concentrated 
lime  juice;  Maclntyre's  experiments  in  lime  juice  concentration; 
note  by  Watts  on  Maclntyre's  experiments  in  lime  juice  concen- 
tration. Concentrating  lime  juice  by  freezing — Rollings'  method 
of  concentrating  lime  juice  by  freezing.  Calcium  citrate  prepara- 
tion. Salability  of  citrate  and  juice.  West  Indian  lime  oils, 
expressed  and  distilled — origin  and  production;  hand-expressed 
oil:  properties  and  composition,  citral  and  acid  content;  distilled 
oil:  properties  and  composition,  methyl  anthranilate,  limettin, 
citral.  Haiti.  Cuba.  French  West  Indies.  Porto  Rico.  Dutch 
West  Indies  (Curasao). 

XIV.   THE  INDUSTRY  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 307 

Argentina.  Brazil.  Chile.  Paraguay — oil  of  petitgrain.  British 
Guiana.  Uruguay. 

XV.   THE  INDUSTRY  IN  EUROPE 313 

Greece.  Syria.  Former  Austrian  empire.  France.  Italy — geo- 
graphical distribution  of  the  by-product  industry:  the  industry 
near  Etna,  in  the  Messina  district,  in  the  Palermo  district,  in  the 
Syracuse  district,  in  the  north-coast  towns ;  manufacture  of  citrus 
products;  equipment  of  factories;  preparation  of  the  fruit;  ex- 
traction of  the  essential  oil ;  treatment  of  the  residues ;  machine- 
made  essential  oil;  citrate  of  lime;  costs  of  production;  varying 
trade  systems  (speculation)  ;  the  1908  law  for  the  centralization 
of  the  trade;  the  Sicilian  citrate  and  sulphur  industries  com- 
pared ;  citrus  fruit  export  data. 

XVI.  THE  INDUSTRY  IN  ASIA 340 

Japan.    China.    Syria. 

XVII.  THE  INDUSTRY  OF  AFRICA  AND  OCEANIA 344 

Africa — Algeria;  British  South  Africa;  Morocco;  Tunis. 
Oceania — Australia ;  New  Zealand. 

APPENDIX 348 

Tables  showing:  Citrus  fruit:  production  of  oranges  and  lemons 
by  principal  districts,  Spain,  1923-24  and  1925-26.  Citrus  fruit: 
production  in  France,  1914-24.  Citrus  oils,  acid,  and  citrate  of 
lime  exported  from  Italy.  Imports  of  lemon  oil  into  the  United 
States,  1898-1924.  Imports  of  Neroli  or  orange  flower  oil  into 
the  United  States,  1898-1922.  Imports  of  orange  oil  into  the 
United  States,  1898-1924.  Imports  of  citric  acid  into  the  United 
States,  1898-1924.  Imports  of  citrate  of  lime  into  the  United 
States,  1898-1924.  Imports  of  citrate  of  lime  into  the  United 


CONTENTS  vii 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

States,  by  countries,  for  fiscal  years  1910-17  and  calendar  years 
1918-20.  Imports  of  lemon  oil  into  the  United  States  by  coun- 
tries, for  fiscal  years  1910-17,  and  calendar  years  1918-20.  Im- 
ports of  lemon,  lime,  and  sour  orange  juice  into  the  United 
States,  1898-1924.  Total  cars  and  boxes  of  oranges  and  lemons 
shipped  from  California.  Total  cars  of  oranges  and  lemons 
shipped  from  northern  California,  1903-24.  Total  cars  of  or- 
anges and  lemons  shipped  from  southern  California,  1887-1924. 
Lemons :  exports  from  the  United  States  by  countries,  year  end- 
ing June  30,  1913-23  and  nine  months  (July,  1923 — March,  1924). 
Production  of  oranges,  grapefruit  and  lemons,  by  states,  for  var- 
ious periods.  Lemons :  imports  into  the  United  States,  by  coun- 
tries, year  ending  June  30,  1910-13,  1922,  1923,  and  nine  months 
(July,  1923 — March,  1924).  Lemons:  imports  into  the  United 
States  by  months,  November,  1922 — April,  1924.  Monthly  aver- 
age wholesale  prices  of  California  and  Sicilian  lemons  in  New 
York,  January,  1922,  to  April,  1924.  Exports  of  citrate  of  lime 
and  citric  acid,  from  Italy  by  countries,  1913.  Exports  of  ci- 
trate of  lime  and  citric  acid  from  Italy,  1909-17.  Exports  of  ci- 
trate of  lime  and  citric  acid  from  Italy,  by  countries,  1917. 
Exports  of  essential  oil  of  lemon  from  Italy,  1909-17.  Rates  of 
import  duties  on  citrus  products  in  the  United  States,  1883-1925. 
Rates  of  import  duties  on  citrate  of  lime  in  principal  countries. 
Rates  of  import  duties  on  citric  acid  in  the  principal  countries. 
Wholesale  prices  of  citric  acid  (crystals)  at  New  York,  1911-19. 
Comparison  of  wholesale  prices  of  citric  acid  in  Italy,  Australia, 
and  the  United  States  by  quarters,  1913-18.  Oil  of  orange,  oil 
of  bergamot,  oil  of  lemon — exports  of  citrus  oils  from  Italy, 
1912-19.  Exports  of  Italian  essential  citrus  oils,  by  principal 
countries,  1916.  Citric  acid  manufactured  in  the  United  States, 
1904-17.  Bergamot,  synthetic — prices  per  pound.  Oil  of  lime, 
expressed — prices  per  pound.  Oil  of  lime,  distilled — prices  per 
pound.  Neroli-bigarade — prices  per  pound.  Oil  of  orange, 
sweet  Italian — prices  per  pound.  Orange,  bitter — prices  per 
pound.  Orange,  West  Indian — prices  per  pound.  Bergamot — 
prices  per  pound.  Cedrat  oil — imports  for  consumption — rev- 
enue. Oil  of  bergamot — prices  per  pound.  Oil  of  lemon — prices, 
dollars  per  pound.  Bergamot  oil — imports  for  consumption — rev- 
enue. Oil  of  limes — imports  for  consumption — revenue.  Ner- 
oli — synthetic  and  oil  of  Neroli,  petale — prices,  dollars  per  pound. 

INDEXES 375 

Author  Index.     Subject  Index. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 
ORANGES  AND  SNOW  IN  CALIFORNIA Frontispiece 

PLATE  FACING  PAGE 

VII.    ORANGE  GROVES  IN  JAMAICA 250 

VIII.    GATHERING  THE  LEAVES  OF  THE  BITTER  ORANGE  IN  PARAGUAY.  .266 

IX.    BRANCH  OF  A  BITTER  ORANGE  TREE 270 

X.    A  TYPICAL  PARAGUAYAN  OIL  OF  PETITGRAIN  FACTORY 278 

XI.  WEIGHING  BITTER  ORANGE  LEAVES  DELIVERED  BY  THE  GATHER- 
ERS AT  A  PARAGUAYAN  FACTORY  (upper).  A  LOAD  OF  BITTER 
ORANGE  LEAVES  ON  ROAD  TO  AN  OIL  OF  PETITGRAIN  FACTORY 
(lower)  282 

XII.    PURIFICATION  OF  PETITGRAIN  OIL  (upper).     DISTILLATION  OF 

PETITGRAIN  OIL  IN  PARAGUAY  (lower) 286 

XIII.  HARVESTING  CITRONS  IN  CORSICA  (upper).     SORTING  CITRONS 

IN  CORSICA  (lower) 294 

XIV.  WEIGHING   CITRONS   IN    CORSICA    (upper).   A    SHIPMENT   OF 
CITRONS  AT  BASTIA,  CORSICA  (lower) 298 

XV.  TERRACES   OF    LEMON    TREES   ON   THE    MOUNTAIN-SIDE    NEAR 
"  MAJORI  (upper).    TERRACES  OF  LEMON  TREES  RISING  FROM  THE 

SEA  IN  SICILY  (lower) 302 

XVI.  ONE  OF  THE  BETTER  TYPES  OF  GROVES  AT  MASCALI,  SICILY 
(upper).       A  GROVE  OF  LOW-HEADED  TREES  IN   CALIFORNIA 
(lower)     310 

XVII.    PICKING  AND  GRADING  THE  FRUIT,  PALERMO,  SICILY  (upper). 

INTERIOR  OF  A  PACKING-HOUSE  AT  CATANIA,  SICILY  (lower) .  .314 

XVIII.    A  CRUSHING  MACHINE  USED  IN  THE  PREPARATION  OF  CITRATE 

OF  LIME  (left).    A  LEMON-JUICE  PRESS  (right) 318 

XIX.  PARING    LEMONS,    THREE-PIECE    METHOD,    PALERMO,    SICILY 
(upper).     INTERIOR  OF  LEMON  PRODUCT  FACTORY,  SYRACUSE, 
SICILY  (lower)  326 

XX.  A  LEMON-OIL  MACHINE  USED  IN  CALABRIA   (left).       DISKS 
USED  IN  CALABRIAN  MACHINES  (right) 330 

XXI.    ORANGE    GROVE    AT    NABEUL,    TUNIS    (upper).      COLLECTING 

ORANGE  FLOWERS  AT  NABEUL,  TUNIS  (lower) 334 

XXII.    MANUFACTURING  PLANT  AT  NABEUL,   TUNIS    (upper).       AN 

ARABIC  STILL  (lower) 342 

FIGURE  PAGE 

20.    FLOW  SHEET  FOR  MANUFACTURE  OF  CITRIC  ACID  FROM  LEMONS 247 


CHAPTER  XI 
ECONOMICS  OF  THE  CITRUS  PRODUCT  INDUSTRY 

CITRUS    FRUIT    PRODUCTION 

The  most  important  of  the  citrus  fruits  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
citrus  products  industry  is  the  lemon.  As  may  be  seen  from  the  table 
below,  Italy  is  by  far  the  largest  grower  and  exporter  of  lemons.  At  the 
same  time  this  country  is  also  the  principal  source  of  lemon  oil,  citrate  of 
lime,  and  citric  acid. 

TABLE  XXIX 

LEMONS — INTERNATIONAL  TRADE,  1913,  1921-23* 
(Boxes  of  84  Ibs.,  expressed  in  1,000) 


Country 

19 

t3 

19 

21 

19 

22 

19 

23 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Imports 

Exports 

Austria  

I.SI9 

218 

Germany  

965 

f 

972 

t 

571 

f 

341 

f 

United  Kingdom  f.. 

896!! 

1,072 

I,l6o 

I>25° 

Netherlands  

75 

4 

151 

23 

136 

II 

139 

IO 

Denmark 

3-1 

27 

28 

28 

Sweden 

22 

26 

28 

28 

Italy  

I 

8,005 

I 

4,155 

J 

3,567 

I 

3,699 

Spain  

87 

240 

157 

tlf 

89  1f 

United  States  

§ 

58 

§ 

304 

1,321 

174 

1,499 

182 

Cuba 

7 

""Compiled  from  official  sources  except  where  otherwise  noted, 
t  Not  separately  stated.  [[Includes  limes  and  grapefruit. 

J  Less  than  500  boxes.  UTen  months  ending  October  31. 

§  Expressed  in  value  only. 

BASIC  FACTS  RELATING   TO  THE   CALIFORNIA   PRODUCTS   INDUSTRY 

In  normal  years  10  per  cent  of  the  lemon  crop  and  3  per  cent  of  the 
orange  crop  is  classed  as  "culls"  and  are  not  fit  for  shipment  because  of 
their  physical  condition.1  Under  unfavorable  conditions  as  much  as  40 
per  cent  of  the  fruit  may  be  classed  as  "culls,"  since  it  cannot  be  sold  for 
enough  to  pay  the  cost  of  harvesting,  shipping,  and  selling.  It  must, 
however,  be  harvested  and  sorted  out  in  the  packing-house  and  the  ex- 
pense involved  in  this  handling  is  a  loss  to  the  grower  unless  the  fruit 
can  be  converted  into  products  which  will  sell  at  a  price  that  will  at  least 
cover  these  costs. 

*For  a  more  complete  definition  of  "culls"  see  p.  4. 


213 


214  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  conversion  of  this  waste  fruit  in  the  United  States  into  a  useful 
product  is  necessary  to  the  stability  of  the  fruit  growing  industry. 

THE  LEMON    PRODUCTS   INDUSTRY    IN    ITALY1 

In  Italy,  the  principal  country  producing  lemons  outside  of  the  United 
States,  where  the  cultural  conditions  result  in  a  higher  proportion  of  un- 
salable fruit,  from  30  to  50  per  cent  of  the  total  crop  of  lemons  is  con- 
verted into  citrate  of  lime,  citric  acid,  and  lemon  oil.  In  order  to  aid  the 
prosperity  of  the  lemon  industry,  the  Italian  government  has  created  a 
by-products  monopoly  through  which  it  is  sought  to  guarantee  a  fair  price 
to  the  grower  and  to  control  and  regulate  the  market  for  these  products. 

The  United  States  Tariff  Commission  has  made  an  investigation  of  the 
by-products  business  in  Italy.  It  has  the  following  to  report  about  its 
control  by  the  Italian  government : 

An  important  feature  of  the  industry  is  the  Sicilian  method  of  selling  the 
citrus  products.  The  Italian  Government  created  a  citrus  chamber  of  Camera 
Agrumaria,  to  control  and  regulate  the  market  for  citrus  products.  This 
Chamber  is  made  up  of  a  certain  number  of  producers  and  exporters  from 
each  of  the  Provinces  together  with  representatives  from  the  ministries  of 
commerce  and  agriculture  and  a  president  nominated  by  the  council  of  min- 
isters. 

Citrate  of  lime  and  citric  acid  are  handled  almost  exclusively  by  the 
Camera  which  fixes  the  prices  periodically  and  through  its  agents  allots 
monthly  deliveries  to  buyers  all  over  the  world.  It  guarantees  the  producer 
a  certain  minimum  price  for  his  product  and  the  Italian  Government  levies 
an  export  duty  amounting  to  I  lire  per  quintal  (0.087  cent  Per  pound)  on  all 
sales  not  made  through  the  Camera  Agrumaria.  The  producers  deposit  their 
output  with  the  Camera  and  they  are  advanced  80  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the 
citrate  of  lime,  and  the  balance  is  adjusted  when  the  sale  is  made.2 

Citric  acid,  citrate  of  lime,  and  lemon  and  orange  oils  are  articles  of 
the  world-trade.  The  United  States  offers  the  largest  available  market 
for  them.  Citric  acid  is  imported  into  the  United  States  chiefly  in  the 
form  of  citrate  of  lime  and  is  here  converted  into  citric  acid,  though  in 
the  last  few  years  large  quantities  of  citric  acid  have  been  imported  as 
such.  A  large  amount  of  citric  acid  is  also  imported  in  the  form  of  con- 
centrated lemon  or  lime  juice,  which,  under  the  previous  tariff,  was  ad- 
mitted duty-free. 

FUTURE  OF  THE  AMERICAN   CITRUS  PRODUCTS   INDUSTRY 

The  American  lemon  industry  is  growing  rapidly.  California  will 
produce  5,000,000  boxes  in  excess  of  the  total  normal  consumption  of 
lemons  in  the  United  States.  There  are  17,000  acres  of  non-bearing 

^ee  pp.  336,  337,  349,  355,  360,  361-68  for  additional  statistics. 
^Tariff  Information  Series  No.  13  (1920),  p.  24. 


LEMON  PRODUCTS  INDUSTRY 


215 


lemon  trees  in  California,  which,  if  the  industry  is  maintained,  will  in- 
crease this  surplus  in  the  next  few  years  to  at  least  3,000,000  boxes.1 
This  increase  in  production  will  increase  the  supply  of  cull  lemons  which 
furnish  the  raw  material  for  citrus  products. 

California  is  now  producing  one-third  of  the  citric  acid  used  in  the 
United  States  and  will  largely  increase  its  production  in  the  next  few 
years.  Five  factories,  two  of  which  are  operated  by  co-operative  grow- 
ers' organizations,  have  already  been  established  to  handle  orange  and 
lemon  by-products.  These  factories  are  prepared  to  utilize  the  entire  cull 
supply  if  the  tariff  makes  continued  operation  and  the  expansion  of  the 
industry  possible. 

The  United  States  Tariff  Commission  has  the  following  to  say  about 
the  domestic  citrus  products  industry  and  its  future : 

There  is  an  opportunity  for  the  growth  of  the  citrus  by-products  industry 
in  California  through  the  more  complete  utilization  of  the  culls  and  through 
the  growth  of  the  lemon-growing  industry.  The  acreage  of  young,  non- 
bearing  lemon  groves  in  California  is  about  75  per  cent  of  the  acreage  of 
bearing  trees,  and  much  of  the  latter  is  in  young  orchards  which  have  not 
reached  the  full-bearing  stage.  It  may,  therefore,  be  predicted  that  within 
five  or  six  years  the  total  crop  of  lemons  will  be  nearly  double  that  produced 
during  1918.  If  the  same  proportion  of  the  crop  were  treated  as  culls,  and 
if  all  the  culls  were  converted  into  useful  products,  the  production  of  these 
would  be  about  four  times  as  great  as  at  present  [1918].  Should  it  prove 
difficult  to  sell  the  double  crop  of  lemons  at  profitable  figures,  the  tendency 
will  be  to  grade  more  strictly,  and  thereby  to  increase  the  proportion  of  culls.2 

THE  COST  PER  TON   OF   HANDLING  CULL  LEMONS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

The  cost  of  converting  cull  lemons  into  citric  acid  and  lemon  oil  in 
California  is  known  from  the  records  of  the  Exchange  Lemon  Products 

TABLE  XXX 
COST  OF  HANDLING  AND  PROCESSING  LOW-GRADE  LEMONS 


Cost  per 
Ton 

Percentage 
Labor 

Labor  Cost 
per  Ton 

Gathering  fruit  

$  9.00 

qcr 

$  8.S5 

Transportation  to  central  factory  

5-79 

60 

t.47 

Factory  operation  and  maintenance  

14.73 

3O 

4.42 

Total  

$2Q.S2 

$16.44 

JSee  diagram,  pp.  i,  2. 

^Tariff  Information  Series  No.  13  (1920),  p.  26. 


2l6 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Co.  and  the  United  Chemical  Works,  which  have  converted  70,000  tons 
of  lemons  into  these  products  since  1916.  The  present  cost  of  harvesting 
the  fruit,  handling  it  to  the  central  factory  and  of  manufacturing,  includ- 
ing the  proportion  of  the  cost  represented  by  labor,  is  set  forth  in 
Table  XXX. 

Since  both  citric  acid  and  oil  of  lemon  are  manufactured  from  the 
lemons,  a  proper  division  of  the  labor  costs  per  ton  as  outlined  in  Table 
XXX  is  estimated  to  be  $14.24  for  40  Ib.  of  acid  and  $2.20  for  5  Ib.  of 
lemon  oil  produced  from  one  ton  of  cull  fruit.  This  represents  35.6  cents 
per  pound  of  citric  acid  and  44  cents  per  pound  of  lemon  oil. 

All  citric  acid  in  the  course  of  its  manufacture  pas'ses  through  the 
citrate  of  lime  stage.  The  labor  required  to  convert  this  into  citric  acid 
costs  approximately  4  cents  per  pound  of  acid  crystallized.  The  labor 
cost  of  acid  in  the  citrate  stage  is  therefore  31.6  cents  per  pound.  A 
pound  of  citrate  contains  64/iooths  pound  of  pure  acid,  the  labor  cost 
of  the  acid  as  represented  in  this  citrate  of  lime  stage  is  therefore  20.2 
cents  per  pound. 

COMPARATIVE  LABOR  COSTS  OF  HANDLING  CULL  LEMONS  AND  OF  MANUFACTUR- 
ING BY-PRODUCTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITALY 

Using  the  cost  of  labor  on  citric  acid  made  in  California  as  outlined 
above  at  35.6  cents  per  pound,  the  comparative  labor  cost  of  Italian  citric 
acid  is  8.9  cents  per  pound,  the  labor  ratio  between  the  United  States  and 
Italy  being  4  to  I. 

TABLE  XXXI 
COMPARATIVE  WAGES*  IN  ITALY  AND  AMERICA 


Class  of  Labor 

Italian  Wage 

American  Wage 

Ratio 

Fruit  gathering  

$0.52  to  $0.62 

$2.50  to  $3.00 

1:48 

Rough  labor  

.60  to      .78 

2.75  to    3.25 

i  :  4 

Process  men  

.87  to     .90 

3.20  to    3.60 

1:38 

Chemists  and  mechanics  

.93  to      .95 

3.60  to    4.80 

i:  44 

General  average  ratio,  taken  as. 

i:  4 

*  The  Italian  wages  are  taken  from  tables  compiled  by  the  clerk  of  the  Ways  and  Means  Com- 
mittee (Tariff  Information  Series  (1921),  "Wages  in  the  United  States  and  Foreign  Countries"  (pp.  9. 
36) .  The  wages  in  California  are  taken  from  the  records  of  those  handling  cull  lemons  and  manufacturing 
these  products. 

The  comparison  of  wages,  including  the  ratio  between  the  Italian  and 
American  rates,  is  set  forth  in  Table  XXXI.  The  comparative  domestic 
and  foreign  labor  costs'  applied  to  citrate  of  lime  are,  respectively,  20.2 


LEMON  PRODUCTS  INDUSTRY 


217 


cents  and  5.1  cents  per  pound.  The  comparative  labor  costs  of  domestic 
and  Italian  oils  are  44  cents  and  n  cents  per  pound.  The  difference  in 
labor  costs  in  favor  of  Italy  is  26.7  cents  on  citric  acid,  15.1  cents  per 
pound  on  citrate  of  lime,  and  33  cents  per  pound  on  oil.  The  value  of 
imported  oil  is  approximately  80  cents  per  pound  or  72  cents  before  pay- 
ment of  duty.  An  ad  valorem  rate  of  40  per  cent  equal  28.8  cents  per 
pound,  or  4.2  cents  per  pound  less  than  the  difference  in  labor  cost  in 
favor  of  Italy. 

TABLE  XXXII 

COMPARATIVE  COST  OF  LABOR  PER  POUND  OF  CITRIC 

ACID,  CITRATE  OF  LIME,  AND  LEMON  OIL 

IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  ITALY 


United  States 
(Cents) 

Cost  of_  Labor  per  Lb. 
in  Italy 
(Cents) 

Difference  in  Favor  of 
Italy 
(Cents) 

Citric  acid  

35.6 

8.0 

26.7 

Citrate  of  lime  

20.  2 

S.I 

IS.  I 

Lemon  oil  

44.  0 

II.O 

H-O 

Table  XXXII  shows  a  comparison  of  the  cost  of  labor  per  pound  of 
citric  acid,  citrate  of  lime,  and  lemon  oil  in  the  United  States  and  Italy 
and  the  difference  in  favor  of  Italy. 

SUMMARY 

The  manufacture  of  commercial  products  from  orange  and  lemon 
culls  is  a  new  industry  in  the  United  States  as  indeed  is  the  entire  citrus 
products  industry. 

The  effective  salvage  of  unsalable  fruit  through  the  manufacture  of 
by-products  would  appear  to  be  a  desirable  aid  to  the  stability  of  the 
citrus  industry. 

The  lemon  by-products  industry  in  Italy,  America's  principal  com- 
petitor, is  controlled  by  a  government  monopoly  of  long  standing  which 
provides  for  the  disposal  of  30  per  cent  to  50  per  cent  of  the  Italian  crop. 

Factories  now  operating  in  California  can  supply  one-third  of  the 
citric  acid  consumed  in  the  United  States;  their  output  is  likely  to  be 
greatly  increased  if  adequate  tariff  protection  is  afforded  them. 

The  rapid  expansion  of  the  citrus  growing  industry,  particularly  in 
the  production  of  lemons,  the  supply  of  which  already  exceeds  the  normal 
domestic  consumption,  will  provide  an  increasing  volume  of  fruit  to  be 
employed  in  citrus  products  manufacture. 


218  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  prevailing  wage  in  the  United  States  scale  is  four  times  that  of 
Italy. 

Excess  of  American  labor  cost  over  Italian  labor  cost  is  known  to  be : 
26.7  per  pound  of  citric  acid  produced ;  15.1  cents  per  pound  of  citrate  of 
lime  produced ;  33  cents  per  pound  of  oil  of  lemon  produced. 

LIMES  AND  LEMONS  AS  SOURCES  OF  CITRIC   ACID  AND  ESSENTIAL  OILS 

During  recent  years,  in  tropical  agriculture,  lime  cultivation  has  been 
one  of  the  minor  booms.  Prices  have  ruled  extraordinarily  high  for  the 
various  citrus  products,  and  at  the  present  time  large  areas  of  land  are 
being  placed  under  cultivation  not  only  in  the  West  Indies  but  also  in 
other  parts  of  the  tropics. 

For  the  present  there  are  no  indications  that  the  supply  of  lime 
products  will  exceed  the  demand.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  demand  for 
limes  is  sufficiently  distinct  from  that  for  lemons,  so  that  there  is  but  little 
overlapping,  but  the  fact  remains  that  Sicily  with  her  lemon  production 
to  a  large  extent  regulates  the  market  price  for  citric  acid,  which  is  the 
essential  constituent  of  lime  juice  and  of  calcium  citrate.  Sicily,  also, 
because  of  her  large  production,  influences  the  prices  for  all  the  essential 
oils  of  the  citrus  group. 

It  occurred  to  Dunlap,  in  view  of  the  increasing  area  under  limes  and 
the  attention  which  lime  growers  give  to  Sicilian  affairs,  that  it  would  be 
interesting  to  contrast  the  lemon  and  the  lime  as  sources  of  citrus 
products,  to  compare  their  respective  yields,  and  their  positions  in  the 
world's  markets.  At  the  same  time  it  was  thought  desirable  to  give  in 
outline  the  methods  practiced  in  cultivating  limes  in  the  West  Indies  for 
the  benefit  of  capital  seeking  investment,  and  to  indicate  how  the  market 
opinion  of  lime  products  compares  with  that  of  lemon  products.  The 
lemon  is  not,  like  the  lime,  dealt  with  from  the  agricultural  standpoint, 
for  the  reason  that  the  area  under  lemons — except  perhaps  in  districts 
of  the  United  States — cannot  readily  be  extended,  for  the  plant  seems  to 
require  very  special  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  and  the  industry  in 
Sicily  is  fully  established.  Moreover  the  lime  crop  appears  to  be  better 
suited  to  tropical  conditions  than  the  lemon.  As  regards  foreign  coun- 
tries, the  future  development  of  the  citrus  products  manufacture  will 
probably  depend  chiefly  upon  the  extension  of  lime  cultivation  to  which 
the  West  Indies  and  Central  America  are  especially  well  adapted. 

EXTENT  OF  PRODUCTION  OF  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  principal  commodities  dealt  with  in  this  book  are  raw  and  con- 
centrated lime  juice,  citrate  of  lime,  and  the  essential  oils.  Some  idea 


EXTENT  OF  PRODUCTION  219 

of  the  relative  importance  of  lemon  and  lime  products  can  be  obtained 
from  the  following  tables.  The  first  one,  Table  XXXIII,  shows  the  ex- 
ports of  lime  products  from  the  British  West  Indian  Colonies1  during 
1913-14. 

TABLE  XXXIII 

Dominica  £142,662 

Montserrat 5,977 

Jamaica  (average  last  four  years) 4»J79 

St.  Lucia  3,108 

British  Guiana  I>53° 


Total 

These  figures  include  the  fresh  limes  exported  chiefly  to  New  York, 
worth  about  £40,000.  It  may  be  added  that  lime  products  worth  some 
thousands  of  pounds  are  also  exported  from  Porto  Rico,  Mexico,  and 
other  foreign  countries  of  Central  America. 

The  value  of  citrus  products  prepared  from  the  lemons  exported  from 
Sicily  in  1908,  which  may  be  taken  as  an  average  year,  amounted  to  about 
£840,650.  Bulletin  No.  60,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture,  gives  the  following  analysis  (Table 
XXXIV). 

TABLE  XXXIV 

Citrate  of  lime  $2,678,489 

Citrus  essential  oils  1,380,455 

Raw  juice    —  .      121,098 

Concentrated  juice 23,208 


Total    $4,203,650* 

•Approximately  £840,650. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  value  of  the  fresh  lemons  exported  equals  the 
combined  value  of  the  so-called  by-products,  excluding  peel.  This  shows 
the  magnitude  of  the  citrus  trade  of  Sicily.  During  1912-13,  the  fresh 
fruit  trade  increased  greatly  owing  to  the  failure  of  the  California  crop, 
which  partly  meets  the  American  demand.  Hence  the  amount  of  by- 
products that  could  be  made  in  Sicily  was  relatively  small,  and  conse- 
quently prices  ruled  high  for  the  West  Indian  products.  During  1912-13 
the  quantity  of  citrate  of  lime  produced  by  Sicily  was  only  3,445  metric 
tons  and  of  concentrated  juice  only  22,042  imperial  gallons — considerably 
less  than  the  mean  annual  production  or  consumption  during  the  last  five 
years. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  Sicily,  being  the  chief  source  of  citrus  products, 
must  to  a  large  extent  regulate  the  market:  It  may  be  remembered,  how- 

^ee  Appendix,  pp.  354,  355,  for  later  statistics  on  West  Indian  products. 


22O 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


ever,  that  the  total  or  combined  exports  of  lemons  and  by-products  from 
Sicily  has  not  increased  for  years  and  is  not  likely  to  grow  appreciably 
larger.  On  the  other  hand  the  export  of  lime  products  has  increased 
rapidly  during  the  past  few  years  and  is  certain  to  increase  farther, 
strengthening  the  position  of  limes  on  the  market. 

COMPOSITION  OF  THE  TWO  FRUITS 

The  commercial  yields  of  acid  and  oils  will  be  described  later.  In 
this  section  attention  will  be  given  to  the  chemical  composition  of  the 
fruits. 

The  Lancet  for  March  28,  1908,  published  the  results  of  analyses  of 
two  sample's  of  limes  and  lemons  which  showed  the  lime  in  all  important 
respects  to  be  the  richer  fruit.  The  report,  which  was  reproduced  as  a 
leaflet  by  the  West  India  Committee,  stated  that  "the  lime,  although 
smaller  than  the  lemon,  yields,  weight  for  weight,  a  good  deal  more  juice. 
Thus  the  average  amount  of  juice  expressed  from  a  lemon  was  37.5  per 
cent  of  its  weight,  whereas  the  lime  gave  59.0  per  cent.  Moreover  the 
lime  gives  more  citric  acid  but  less  sugar."  This  report  included  analyses, 
which  showed  the  citric  acid  content  of  the  lemon  to  be  4.57  and  that  of 
the  lime  5.60  gm. 

TABLE  XXXV 


Description  of  Fruits 

Number 
of  Fruits 
to 
500  gm. 

Juice 
Expressed 
(Per  Cent) 

Citric  _Acid 
in  Juice* 
(Grains  per 
100  c.c.) 

A.  Limes  

Fully  ripe,  in  fair  condition  and  of 

good  size  

Q\4 

•56.8 

7.  OS 

B.  Limes  

Fully  ripe,  poor  condition,  of  uniform 

size  

15 

47.O 

7.74 

C.  Lemons  

Three  fully  ripe  and  three  slightly 
green,  small  

6 

28.8 

7.56 

D.  Lemons  

Good  quality  and  size  

$y\ 

4.1.6 

6.77 

E.  Lemons  

Good  quality  and  uniform,  very  small, 
almost  an-nroachins:  the  lime  .  . 

7\4 

40.  8 

7.4 

•Expressed  as  crystallized  citric  acid,  containing  I  molecule  of  water. 


TABLE  XXXVI 


Juice  Expressed 
(Per  Cent) 

Citric  Acid  in  Juice 
(Grams  per  100  c.c.) 

Limes       ...    .        

si.q 

7.4O 

Lemons  

•17.1 

7.24 

In  order  to  extend  this  investigation  Dunlap  secured  two  commercial 
samples  of  limes  from  different  sources,  and  three  commercial  samples 
of  lemons  from  ordinary  retail  shops  in  London.  The  results  obtained 
on  examination  are  in  Table  XXXV. 


COMPOSITION  OF  LEMONS  AND  LIMES 


221 


Taking  the  average  of  the  figures  shown  in  columns  4  and  5  of  Table 
XXXV  we  get  results  given  in  Table  XXXVI. 

These  results  show,  even  with  limes  not  of  the  first  grade,  that  the 
lime  undoubtedly  contains  a  higher  percentage  of  juice  and  of  citric  acid 
than  the  lemon,  but  the  difference  is  not  quite  as  great  as  the  Lancet 
figures  seem  to  show.  Dr.  Watts,  in  the  West  Indies,  during  1905  tested 
limes  and  lemons  grown  in  Dominica,1  and  as  regards  the  acid  content 
obtained  the  results  in  Tables  XXXVII  and  XXXVIII. 


TABLE  XXXVII 
LIMES 

Spineless 

Ordinary 

Percentage  of  juice  

5I.3 

50,8 

Citric  acid  grams  per  100  c.c. 

1  1.70 

II.  IS 

Citric  acid,  ounces  t>er  eallon.  . 

IS.  71 

14.18 

TABLE  XXXVIII 
LEMONS 


Italian 

Villa  Franca 

Citric  acid,  grams  per  100  c.c  

II.  19 

II.  -17 

Citric  acid,  ounces  per  gallon  

13.28 

15.39 

These  values  relatively  are  more  in  accord  with  Dunlap's  figures, 
though  absolutely  the  acid  content  is  much  higher.  It  is  dear  that  in  the 
case  of  the  relative  composition  of  citrus  fruits  great  care  must  be  exer- 
cised to  secure  examples  which  are  in  a  comparable  condition.  There  is 
undoubtedly  a  loss  in  citric  acid  on  keeping. 

At  all  events  Dunlap's  figures  are  of  interest  as  an  indication  of  the 
composition  of  the  limes  and  lemons  that  are  sold  during  the  winter 
months  in  London. 

It  would  appear  that  the  lemon  contains  a  larger  percentage  of  essen- 
tial oils  than  the  lime,  possibly  owing  to  the  thickness  of  the  skin.  The 
lime  is  richer  in  phosphoric  acid  and  possesses  special  anti-scorbutic 
properties — matters  of  importance  from  a  dietetic  point  of  view. 

METHOD  OF  CULTIVATING  LIMES 

The  cultivation  of  limes  in  the  West  Indies  is  fully  treated  in 
pamphlets  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture  for  the  West 
Indies,  but  it  may  be  well  to  give  an  outline  here  of  the  methods  adopted. 

1See  Annual  Report  on  Botanic  Station,  Dominica,  1905-6. 


222  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

Moreover,  the  principles  governing  the  preparation  of  lime  products  are 
the  same  as  for  the  lemon,  so  that  the  information  will  be  of  interest  to 
the  reader  who  is  unfamiliar  with  one  industry  or  the  other. 

Selection  of  land. — The  establishment  and  general  management  is 
sketched  for  an  estate  in  Dominica  or  St.  Lucia,  two  of  the  principal 
citrus  islands  of  the  Lesser  Antilles. 

It  is  advised  that  flat  or  gently  undulating  lands  should  be  chosen  if  pos- 
sible, in  a  locality  which  is  well  sheltered  and  situated  from  sea-level  up  to 
800  ft  elevation,  and  possessing  a  rainfall  varying  from  80  to  160  in.  per 
annum.  If  the  rainfall  is  well  distributed,  60  in.  may  suffice.  In  the  West 
Indies,  where  limes  thrive  best,  the  average  temperature  is  about  80°  F.  in 
the  shade. 

Preparation  of  land  and  planting. — If  necessary,  the  land  is  cleared  of 
forest  in  the  usual  way,  and  after  planting  the  seedlings  (generally  15  ft.  X 
15  ft.)  the  weeds  are  kept  down  by  cutlassing  around  the  young  plants.  Be- 
fore planting,  however,  adequate  provision  has  to  be  made  for  roads,  drain- 
age, and  windbreaks.  Drainage  depends  upon  local  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate,  but  often  it  is  not  apparent  that  drainage  is  necessary  until  the  estate 
is  being  worked.  Care  should  be  taken  to  plant  the  trees  in  straight  lines; 
otherwise,  if  drainage  operations  have  to  be  started,  grave  damage  may  be 
done  to  the  groves.  Windbreaks  are  generally  essential  from  the  beginning. 
There  are  several  trees  used  as  permanent  windbreaks,  such  as  Galba  (Calo- 
phyllum  Calaba)  and  Pois-doux  (Inga  laurina)  ;  whilst  the  sugar-cane  and 
Madura  (Glyricidia  maculata)  make  good  temporary  shelters. 

Nursery  work. — Seedlings  for  planting  out  are  raised  in  special  seed- 
beds in  nurseries.  Up  to  the  present  most  of  this  work  in  the  West  Indies 
has  been  undertaken  by  the  local  agricultural  departments,  which  have  sup- 
plied the  estate  with  many  thousands  annually.  Now  the  estates  are  begin- 
ning to  raise  their  own  stock.  There  are  no  special  difficulties  attending  this 
work,  provided  a  good  water  supply  is  secured.  Success  then  depends  largely 
on  practical  experience. 

After-cultivation  and  manuring. — The  point  to  remember  in  this  connec- 
tion is  that  the  root  system  of  the  lime  tree  is  surface  feeding.  Hence  tillage 
has  to  be  very  cautiously  performed,  and  it  is  generally  disadvantageous  in 
the  long  run  to  plant  catch  crops.  Very  little  pruning  is  required,  but  atten- 
tion must  be  paid  to  cases  of  in j  ury  by  wind  and  to  replacing  trees  that  die. 

As  regards  manuring,  the  first  essential  is  to  maintain  the  soil  humus. 
This  is  done  by  the  careful  use  of  green  dressing  and  by  the  application  of 
mulch,  green  manure,  and  possibly  artificial  manures.  Very  little  is  yet 
known  concerning  the  manuring  of  limes.  Experiments  have  been  carried 
on  in  this  direction  at  Dominica.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  not  a  great 
deal  known  about  the  requirements  of  the  lime  plant.  It  has  been  rather 
neglected,  because  it  was  not  until  quite  recently  that  this  plant  became 
prominent  in  cultivation.  More  attention,  experimentally,  has  been  given  to 
its  products,  like  the  composition  of  the  fruit,  lime  juice,  and  oils. 

Pests  and  diseases. — A  considerable  amount  of  work  has,  however,  been 
done  in  connection  with  the  pests  and  diseases  of  the  lime  tree,  principally  by 


LIME  CULTIVATION  223 

the  entomologists  and  mycologists  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agricul- 
ture. The  insect  pests  attacking  limes  have  not  as  a  general  rule  assumed  a 
serious  aspect.  Fungus  troubles  have  been  greater,  and  the  well-known  local 
West  Indian  root  disease  occasions  considerable  loss  in  some  places  unless 
draining,  trenching,  liming,  and  the  burning  of  diseased  material  is  rigorously 
carried  out. 

Time  of  maturity  and  yields. — The  lime  crop  takes  about  five  years  to 
come  into  bearing.  Under  favorable  conditions  the  trees  may  yield  a  few 
fruits  in  the  third  year,  but  it  is  nearer  eight  or  ten  years  before  the  estate 
can  be  regarded  as  yielding  its  maximum  crop.  A  lime  tree  continues  to 
yield  for  at  least  forty  years  after  first  beginning  to  bear. 

In  Dominica  and  St.  Lucia  the  main  crop  is  gathered  from  June  or  July 
to  November  or  December.  Four  or  six  months  are  required  for  the  develop- 
ment of  the  fruit  from  the  flowering  stage. 

The  yield  per  acre  of  an  established  lime  plantation  varies  considerably, 
but  a  good  average  is  150  barrels  of  fruit.  The  weight  of  a  barrel  (4^  cu.  ft. 
contents)  of  limes  is  about  160  Ib.  Hence  an  acre  of  good  land  may  be  re- 
garded as  yielding  24,000  Ib.  of  fruit. 

Harvesting. — The  gathering  of  the  crop  depends  upon  the  way  it  is  to  be 
disposed  of.  Fresh  limes  for  export  as  such  are  picked  from  the  trees  in  a 
green  condition ;  fruit  from  which  manufactured  products  are  to  be  made  is 
allowed  to  ripen  on  the  tree  and  to  fall  to  the  ground. 

Fresh  limes. — During  the  last  ten  years  a  very  considerable  trade  in 
fresh  limes  has  developed  between  Dominica  and  New  York.  Latterly 
St.  Lucia  and  other  West  Indian  colonies  have  participated  in  this  trade. 
Great  care  is  exercised  in  the  matter  of  preparing  the  fruit  for  export. 
The  green  fruit  is  kept  in  a  packing-house  for  a  few  days  previous  to 
being  shipped  in  order  to  allow  the  fruit  to  quail,  or  cure,  that  is,  lose 
excess  of  moisture  in  the  skins.  The  fruit  must  be  carefully  graded, 
wrapped  in  paper,  and  packed  in  ventilated  packages. 

Whether,  in  the  future,  as  the  area  under  limes  grows  larger,  the 
fresh  fruit  trade  will  increase  greatly,  is  difficult  to  foresee.  In  the  United 
States  the  lime  appears  to  be  replacing  the  lemon  for  many  purposes. 
In  the  case  of  the  United  Kingdom,  the  trade  has  never  assumed  any  great 
importance  for  several  reasons.  In  the  first  place  the  voyage  to  England 
is  nearly  twice  as  long  as  to  New  York,  which  puts  difficulties  in  the  way 
of  the  transportation  of  perishable  produce.  Secondly,  the  British  taste 
is  conservative.  The  public  is  familiar  with  the  lemon,  and  is  not  gen- 
erally inclined  to  discard  it  in  favor  of  the  lime,  even  if  this  fruit  were 
regularly  available.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  fresh  lime  is  available  in 
quantity  only  during  the  latter  half  of  the  year,  while  the  lemon  is  always 
to  be  had.  Furthermore,  the  fresh  lime  is  essentially  an  article  for  im- 
mediate sale.  It  does  not  keep  as  well  as  the  lemon,  and  the  retail  sales- 
men do  not  view  it  with  favor  from  a  business  point  of  view.  In  New 


224  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

York,  on  the  contrary,  the  consumption  during  the  hot  months  is  rapid 
and  continuous;  the  fruit  can  be  bought  with  a  certainty  of  profitable 
sale. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  the  fresh  lime  trade  is  its  elasticity  or  accom- 
modating nature.  If  prices  range  beyond  a  certain  point  it  pays  to  Ship; 
if  they  do  not,  the  fruit  can  be  held  back  for  manufacturing  purposes. 
The  trade  with  New  York  is  conducted  on  this  principle. 

In  the  case  of  the  United  Kingdom  it  seems  to  the  growers  at  present 
quite  unnecessary  to  go  to  any  expense  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
fresh  lime  trade,  since  more  profit  is  to  be  had  there  from  concentrated 
juice  and  the  essential  oils. 

THE  PRODUCTION  OF  LEMON  PRODUCTS  IN  SICILY 

Lemon  cultivation  in  Sicily  and  other  parts  of  the  subtropics  has 
characteristic  features.  Variation  in  the  physical  condition  of  the  soil 
affects  the  relative  yields  of  juice  and  oil,  not  to  mention  the  period  of 
ripening.  In  a  general  way,  also,  irrigation  and  protection  from  frost 
are  necessary  for  lemon  cultivation,  which  differs  from  lime  growing  in 
these  respects.  Another  matter  of  interest  is  that  the  plants  are  usually 
kept  in  the  nurseries  until  three  years  old.  They  are  then  planted  in  the 
groves  (generally  15  ft.  X  15  ft.)  and  come  into  bearing  when  six  years 
old. 

The  season  of  lemon  ripening  in  Sicily  varies.  It  is  considered  to 
begin  on  October  i  and  end  on  September  30  following.  Fruit  is  pro- 
duced all  the  year  round.  The  heaviest  yields  of  each  locality  usually 
occur  during  the  second,  third,  or  fourth  months  in  the  season.  The  fruit 
gathered  in  the  first  harvest  in  each  section  is  considered  to  be  inferior  in 
keeping  quality. 

Yields  and  profit. — On  this  point  we  may  quote  the  Perfumery  and 
Essential  Oil  Record  for  August,  1914,  which  contains  a  translation  of 
an  article  that  appeared  during  the  same  year  in  Le  Journal  d' Agriculture 
Tropicale. 

Working  on  averages  we  get  the  following  figures:  1,000  fruits  of  100 
grams,  that  is  to  say  100  kilograms  give  (after  machine  peeling  to  a  depth 
of  2  mm.,  and  thus  removing  the  portion  rich  in  essence)  30  kilograms  of 
peel,  from  which  by  sponge  or  "ecuelle"  may  be  obtained  400  grams  of  essen- 
tial oil.  This  yield  varies  with  locality,  care  in  cultivating,  variety,  and  soil. 
It  may  be  reckoned,  then,  that  2,500  fruits  give  a  kilogram  of  essence,  and, 
accepting  the  figure  of  275,000  fruits  per  hectare,  a  total  of  100  to  no  kilo- 
grams of  essence  for  this  area.  From  the  pulp  after  expression,  one  may 
expect  a  yield  of  45  per  cent  of  juice  or  12,000  kilograms  per  hectare.  This 
juice  contains  5  to  7  per  cent  of  pure  citric  acid,  which  means  720  kilograms. 
This  is  evaporated  to  a  specific  gravity  of  42°  Beaume,  equal  to  an  acidity 


YIELDS  AND  PROFITS  225 

of  40  to  45  per  cent.  This  liquid,  neutralised  with  chalk,  gives  a  citrate  of 
lime,  estimating  65  per  cent  of  citric  acid.  To  sum  up,  a  hectare  of  lemon 
trees  under  favourable  conditions  of  culture  can  produce:  100  kilograms  of 
essence  at  20  francs,  worth  2,000  f. ;  700  kilograms  of  citric  acid  at  3  f., 
worth  2,100  f. — in  all,  let  us  say,  4,000  f.,  admitting  that  the  entire  produc- 
tion is  treated  industrially,  which  is  not  usual.  In  any  case,  allowing  an 
expense  roughly  estimated  at  1,500  f.  per  hectare,  the  profit  would  be  from 
2,500  to  3,000  f.  per  hectare  (—  about  £50  per  acre). 

LEMON  AND  LIME  YIELDS  AND  PROFITS  CONTRASTED 

The  material  for  Table  XXXIX,1  based  on  the  foregoing  figures, 
shows  the  relative  yield  in  lemon  and  lime  cultivations. 

TABLE  XXXIX 


Lemons 
(Pounds  per  Acre) 

Limes 
(Pounds  per  Acre) 

Yield  of  fruit  

27,460 

24,000 

Yield  of  juice  

10,560 

11,550 

Containing 
Citric  acid  

634 

QI4. 

Oils  

88 

»»«r 

esl1? 

°5\46 

These  figures  indicate  that  the  yield  of  fruit  per  acre  in  the  case  of 
lemons  is  greater  than  the  yield  of  limes,  taking  four  lemons  to  the 
pound ;  but  the  yield  of  juice  and  citric  acid  is  considerably  less.  The 
amount  of  oils  yielded,  however,  is  greater  in  the  case  of  the  lemon. 

It  seems  that  the  figure  "275,000  lemons  per  hectare"  given  in  the 
reference  quoted  above  can  be  accepted  as  being  representative  of  the 
average  lemon  grove.  The  English  equivalent  for  the  foregoing  figure 
is  110,000  fruits  per  acre,  and  if  there  are  190  tons  per  acre,  this  gives  a 
yield  per  tree  of  about  580  lemons,  which  corresponds  with  the  average 
given  by  American  authorities  (Bulletin  190,  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
U.  S.  Dept.  Agric.)  and  is  well  below  the  yields  of  the  best  lemon  plan- 
tations. 

When  one  comes  to  consider  profits,  it  has  to  be  remembered  that  the 
cost  of  handling  the  lemon  crop  is  much  greater  than  in  the  case  of  the 
lime  crop.  There  are  also  expenses  in  connection  with  irrigation,  frost 
protection,  and  manuring,  and  the  rental  value  of  good  lemon  land  is 
higher  than  that  suited  to  lime  cultivation.  On  the  other  hand,  lime  cul- 
tivation has  heavy  shipping  freights,  though,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  these 
cannot  on  the  whole  work  out  much  higher  than  those  for  lemons  and 
lemon  products,  considering  that  Italy  sends  about  half  of  its  crop  to  the 
United  States. 

'Dunlap,  1915. 


226  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

From  the  producer's  point  of  view  it  is  clear  that  the  lime  can  easily 
compete  with  the  lemon  as  a  source  of  citric  acid.  In  considering  the 
figures  given  for  lime  cultivation,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these 
two  are  based  on  conservative  estimates  and  the  annual  losses  are  al- 
lowed for,  which  in  all  probability  will  be  greatly  reduced  in  the  near 
future,  as  improved  methods  of  preparation  are  more  widely  adopted. 

Prices  are  likely  to  drop  in  the  future.  For  one  thing,  the  war  inter- 
fered with  the  consumption  of  fresh  lemons  and  Sicily  will  probably 
make  more  citrate  and  oil.  Lime  cultivators  will  have  to  make  every 
effort  to  improve  their  yields,  which  can  be  done,  and  to  ship  concen- 
trated juice,  only  good  quality  raw  juice,  and  essential  oils.  With  greater 
production  per  acre  lime-growers  can  stand  a  lower  market  value  than 
the  Sicilian  growers.  Moreover,  the  West  Indies  are  nearer  New  York 
and  Canada.  Lime  cultivation  has  the  advantage  over  lemon-growing  in 
Sicily  in  this  respect  also. 

Selling  basis  of  lime  juice  and  oils. — Concentrated  lime  juice  is  sold 
on  the  basis  of  its  citric  acid  content.  The  juice  is  quoted  on  the  basis  of 
a  standard  "pipe"  of  108  gal.,  containing  64  oz.  of  acid  per  gallon.  A 
pipe  is  therefore  equivalent  to  6,912  oz.,  or  432  Ib.  of  citric  acid. 

A  West  Indian  hogshead  of  concentrated  juice  (100  oz.  per  gallon) 
contains  about  52  gal.,  and  is  equivalent  to  three-fourths  of  a  standard 
pipe.  A  pipe  contains  432  Ib.  of  citric  acid ;  a  West  Indian  hogshead  325 
Ib.  In  commercial  analyses  the  citric  acid  is  mentioned  as  crystallized 
acid,  containing  only  half  a  molecule  of  water  instead  of  one  molecule, 
as  would  be  usual  in  the  case  of  ordinary  analysis. 

Gross  and  net  values. — Some  idea  of  the  net  amount  realized  from 
the  sale  of  concentrated  lime  juice  can  be  obtained  from  the  following 
figures.  The  expenses  are  partly  fixed  and  partly  based  on  value. 

If  the  sale  price  per  pipe  is  £21  the  fixed  charges  (labor,  freight, 
packing,  etc.)  amount  to  about  £2  &s.  $d.,  and  the  charges  (commission, 
brokerage,  insurance,  testing),  based  on  value,  come  to  about  os.  6d. 
(=  6l/2  per  cent)  on  a  hogshead  (52  gal.),  the  amount  realized  for  this 
hogshead  gross  is  £15  i6s.,  hence  the  net  value  would  be  £12  7$.  3^.  In 
the  case  of  essential  oils  the  charges  based  on  value  are  higher  (7^  per 
cent ) . 

o)  Net  value  per  acre. — Owing  to  the  variation  in  local  conditions, 
it  is  not  possible  to  give  reliable  figures  as  to  the  profits  made  in  the  case 
of  lemon  and  lime  cultivations,  but,  based  on  the  values  and  charges 
noted  above,  the  net  value  of  lime  juice  and  oil  from  an  acre  would  be 
about  £35.  This  does  not  allow  for  expenses  of  production  previous  to 
the  preparation  of  the  products  and  their  shipment  and  sale. 


MARKETING  227 

According  to  the  French  estimate  quoted  on  page  224,  the  clear  profit 
in  connection  with  lemon  cultivation  is  about  £45  per  acre,  but  appar- 
ently this  figure  does  not  allow  for  the  cost  of  marketing.  The  American 
authority  quoted  states  that  the  profit  in  Italy  on  100  Ib.  of  oil  and  a 
pipe  of  citrate  of  lime  is  about  $60  or  £12  los.  Satisfactory  information 
on  the  subject  of  profits  can  only  be  obtained  from  the  accounts  of  an 
estate  run  on  commercial  lines. 

THE   MARKETING  OF   CITRUS   PRODUCTS 

Methods  of  selling  in  Sicily. — An  important  feature  of  the  Sicilian 
industry  which  distinguishes  it  from  the  West  Indian  is  the  existence  of 
the  Camera  Agrumaria  or  Citrus  Chamber,  the  government  agency  for 
regulating  market  prices.  The  quotations  which  are  made  in  London  and 
in  other  markets  by  sellers  are  to  a  great  extent  based  on  the  prices 
quoted  by  the  Italian  Citrus  Chamber,  so  that  from  the  West  Indian 
point  of  view  it  is  an  organization  of  considerable  interest.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  it  may  be  laid  down  generally  that  the  amount  of  organization 
employed  in  the  disposal  of  Sicilian  citrus  products  is  very  great — far 
greater  than  in  the  West  Indies,  where  there  exists  no  central  body  which 
can  regulate  the  output  in  any  way.  In  Sicily,  the  proprietors  generally 
sell  their  crops  by  contract,  before  they  are  gathered,  but  have  to  fix  a 
certain  latest  date  for  delivery.  The  sales  are  effected  through  inter- 
mediate brokers  called  "country  brokers."  Occasionally  the  crop  is  sold 
by  the  thousand  at  each  picking.  The  buyer  usually  picks  the  fruit  when 
it  is  sold  by  the  season.  The  grower  usually  picks  it  when  sold  at  each 
picking.  Practically  none  of  the  fruit  is  exported  by  the  grower,  except 
occasionally  in  the  case  of  experienced  large  producers.  As  already 
intimated,  the  grower  usually  sells  his  fruit  through  a  broker  to  the 
exporter  or  the  manufacturer  of  citrus  products.  The  broker  acts  as  an 
agent  for  both  parties  in  the  final  settlement  of  the  transaction,  often 
shipping  the  fruit  for  the  grower,  receiving  the  money,  and  depositing  it 
or  using  it  in  purchases  for  the  grower. 

The  citrate  of  lime  and  concentrated  lemon  juice  are  handled  ex- 
clusively by  the  Camera  Agrumaria,  that  fixes  the  prices  periodically  and 
allots  monthly  deliveries  to  the  various  buyers  all  over  the  world  through 
their  (the  buyers')  agents.  The  lemon  oil,  however,  is  extracted  by  other 
firms,  each  having  a  distinctive  brand  for  their  oil  and  an  agent  in  the 
principal  markets  for  the  sale  of  it.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  that  the 
Sicilian  citrus  trade  lacks  the  competition  among  buyers  which  is  en- 
joyed by  the  West  Indian  trade,  and  obtained  by  the  methods  referred 
to  below. 


228  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

West  Indian  methods, — In  the  case  of  the  West  Indies,  each  pro- 
ducer, in  the  ordinary  way,  ships  his  own  produce ;  but  he  may  sell  the 
fruit  to  one  of  the  larger  factories.  In  one  instance  a  government  factory 
buys  fruit  or  raw  juice  from  the  small  growers,  paying  at  once  a  certain 
percentage  of  cash  and  issuing  a  further  amount  in  the  form  of  a  bonus 
at  the  end  of  the  year,  based  upon  the  actual  selling  price  of  the  manu- 
factured products.  Whatever  the  local  method  of  disposal,  the  products 
are  ultimately  shipped  to  merchants  at  one  or  other  of  the  principal 
markets.  It  should  be  mentioned  here  that  a  system  of  forward  contracts 
is  now  being  exclusively  adopted  in  the  West  Indies.  This  should  be 
distinguished  from  the  Sicilian  method  of  crop  disposal  already  described. 
The  West  Indian  forward  contracts  refer  to  the  shipment  of  juices, 
citrate  of  lime,  and  oils  within  a  definite  period  at  a  fixed  price.  This 
forward  business  could  be  vastly  improved,  to  the  mutual  advantage  of 
buyer  and  shipper,  if  the  latter  would  contract  to  ship  a  certain  specified 
quantity  each  month  of  the  contract  period  and  also  to  maintain  a  uni- 
form standard. 

Citrus  products  on  the  London  market. — The  methods  employed  in 
handling  West  Indian  citrus  products  on  the  London  market  are  very 
different  from  those  employed  in  disposing  of  the  Sicilian  products,  as 
will  be  seen  from  the  following  account. 

As  soon  as  a  West  Indian  steamer  arrives,  the  total  available  supplies 
of  concentrated  juice  and  citrate  are  communicated  to  the  various  buyers 
by  the  brokers,  who  invite  best  offers  for  the  whole  or  part.  The  highest 
bid  received  by  the  brokers  is  then  made  to  the  various  merchants  who 
are  interested,  and  they  decide  whether  it  is  to  be  accepted  or  not.  It  is 
rarely  refused,  for  it  is  generally  recognized  among  the  merchants  that 
in  this  manner  the  highest  price  obtainable  is  secured,  as  there  is  always 
a  demand  for  citric  acid  materials,  and  the  buyer  who  needs  it  most 
naturally  bids  his  utmost,  knowing  that  he  is  in  competition. 

The  raw  juice  and  oils,  however,  are  treated  rather  differently,  for 
whereas  the  concentrated  juice  and  citrate  are  always  in  demand,  and 
are  more  or  less  necessities,  the  raw  juice  and  oils  are  comparative 
luxuries,  and  generally  offered  in  more  than  sufficient  quantities  to  meet 
the  demand,  which  is  spasmodic.  Therefore,  the  sale  of  these  products 
is  slower,  and  requires  sometimes  a  great  deal  of  negotiation. 

The  samples  of  the  different  shipments  are  exhibited  at  the  broker's 
salesroom,  and  the  prospective  customers  are  notified  of  fresh  arrivals. 
Samples  are  also  mailed  to  buyers  resident  in  the  country  or  abroad. 

It  will  be  noticed  here  that  the  system  of  sales  adopted  in  the  case  of 
citrus  produce  differs  from  that  employed  in  the  case  of  staples  like 


MARKETING  229 

cacao  or  sugar  or  rubber.  In  these  there  is  an  open  sale — an  auction ;  in 
the  case  of  citrus,  the  produce  is  sold  by  private  agreement.  It  may  be 
questioned  whether  this  system  of  conducting  private  sales  is  in  the  best 
interests  of  the  growers.  There  seems  to  be  a  feeling  that  it  is  quite  as 
satisfactory,  for  buyers  will  often  give  higher  prices  privately  than  they 
will  in  public;  and,  moreover,  the  broker  is  better  able  to  find  the  best 
buyers,  being  in  touch  with  their  individual  requirements. 

Defects  in  West  Indian  products. — It  would  seem  that  the  importers 
of  West  Indian  citrus  products  have,  as  regards  production,  several  com- 
ments to  make  that  seem  quite  justified.  The  quality  of  citrate  of  lime 
from  the  West  Indies  is  regarded  as  highly  satisfactory,  but  as  regards 
raw  lime  juice,  there  is  said  to  be  a  tendency  to  ship  inferior  grades,  and 
heavy  arrivals  of  lower  qualities  sometimes  depress  the  market.  The 
casks  are  not  always  clean,  and  often  the  percentage  of  pulp  in  the  juice 
is  undesirably  high.  It  is  strongly  urged  in  London  that  to  maintain  a 
steady  trade  in  raw  lime  juice  at  remunerative  rates  inferior  qualities 
should  not  be  sent. 

The  shippers  would  ultimately  reap  the  benefit  by  the  better  price 
obtained  for  their  smaller  output,  for  there  really  exists  a  demand  for  a 
good  juice  of  uniform  quality.  It  should  be  of  bright  greenish  tint,  with 
a  small  percentage  of  pulp  (floating  preferred).  It  should  not  be  con- 
taminated with  iron,  and  should  contain  the  average  percentage  of  acid. 
Juice  of  low  test  or  bad  color  is  absolutely  neglected  by  buyers  while  any- 
thing else  is  available,  and  it  does  not  improve  on  keeping.  Raw  juice 
imported  from  Jamaica  very  frequently  sells  at  good  prices.  This  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  result  of  the  presence  in  it  of  oil  which  preserves  the 
juice. 

In  endeavoring  to  obtain  information  concerning  the  marketing  of  con- 
centrated juice,  Dunlap  was  enabled,  through  the  courtesy  of  Messrs.  Ogston 
&  Moore,  to  compare  samples  of  lemon  and  lime  juice.  Generally  speaking, 
it  appears  that  the  Sicilian  concentrated  juice  arrives  in  a  much  brighter  con- 
dition than  the  West  Indian  product.  Another  important  point  is  that  Sicilian 
lemon  juice  (concentrated)  is  always  of  about  the  same  test,  whereas  the 
West  Indian  varies  from  50  oz.  to  140  oz.  of  citric  acid  per  gallon,  making  it 
very  difficult  for  buyers  to  know  what  they  are  getting.  It  is  also  worth 
noting  that  the  calico  dyers  in  Manchester  state  that  West  Indian  concen- 
trated juice  often  contains  more  sediment  than  is  desirable.  Because  con- 
centrated lemon  juice  arrives  in  a  more  fluid  state  than  lime  juice,  its  em- 
ployment in  the  textile  trade  is  facilitated ;  and,  what  is  equally  important  to 
the  grower,  this  condition  of  the  lemon  juice  makes  sampling  easier.  Messrs. 
Ogston  &  Moore  state  that  the  variation  in  the  acid  content  of  samples  from 
the  same  cask  of  concentrated  lime  juice  is  largely  due  to  the  viscous  nature 
of  the  fluid.  In  connection  with  sampling  and  testing  there  are  many  dif- 


230 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


ficulties,  as  is  well  known  to  both  buyers  and  growers.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  the  fluctuations  work  both  ways:  sometimes  an  ana- 
lytical result  may  favor  the  grower,  at  other  times  the  buyer.  It  is  well  to 
mention  here  that  samples  of  imported  citrus  products  are  generally  taken  at 
the  wharves  as  soon  as  the  ship  is  unloaded.  In  some  instances  samples  go 
direct,  but  this  is  the  exception,  as  the  broker  is  supposed  to  examine  a 
sample  from  each  shipment  and  report  upon  it  where  necessary.  Brokers 
make  themselves  familiar  with  samples  in  order  that  they  may  recommend 
certain  marks  for  special  purposes.  The  samples  are  analyzed  in  duplicate, 
and  are  kept  for  future  reference. 

Lime  and  lemon  oils. — In  concluding  this  section,  a  few  words  may 
be  said  concerning  the  market  characters  of  citrus  oils.  Citrus  oils  should 
be  packed  only  in  the  best  tins,  and  on  no  account  should  distilled  oil  be 
mixed  with  hand-pressed  (ecuelled).  It  should  be  remembered,  in  con- 
sidering Sicilian  competition,  that  the  West  Indian  lime  oils  are  used  in 
the  toilet  and  confectionery  trades  for  different  purposes  from  the  lemon 

TABLE  XL 


Year 

Gal. 

£ 

Year 

Gal. 

£ 

Year 

Gal. 

£ 

1892  

1,127 

87 

1900.  .  . 

4,446 

4,104 

1  908  .... 

4,860 

4,659 

1893  

1,346 

1,877 

1901  .  .  . 

3,907 

2,866 

1909.  .  .  . 

5,403 

5,239 

1894  

1,469 

1,051 

1902  .  .  . 

5,709 

3,207 

1910.  .  .  . 

6,780 

5,875 

1895  

1,561 

1,762 

1  903  .  .  . 

3,050 

1,493 

1911  .... 

6,364 

5,401 

1896  

1,942 

3,364 

1904.  .  . 

2,804 

860 

1912  .... 

5,207 

4,834 

1897  

2,884 

4,713 

1905  .  .  . 

4,163 

1,947 

1913  .... 

6,875 

9,833 

1898.  ..... 

3,560 

4,432 

1906.  .  . 

4,706 

3,016 

1914.  .  .  . 

5,603 

10,138 

1800.  . 

3..S87 

4.402 

IQ07. 

4.675 

4,133 

The  great  hurricane  which  struck  Montserrat  in  1899  contributed  very  con- 
siderably to  the  progress  in  Dominica.  Many  Montserrat  laborers  and  their  fam- 
ilies sought  refuge  in  Dominica  and  as  they  knew  the  work  of  the  lime  industry 
they  helped  to  develop  the  increased  output.  The  retrogression  of  the  years  1903 
and  1904  was  caused  by  great  drouth  and  insect  pests. 

Besides  the  fine,  hand-pressed  lime  oil  the  foregoing  figures  also  include  the  in- 
ferior distilled  oil  which  is  used  in  the  United  States  in  fairly  considerable  quan- 
tities. 

oils.  Hence,  whatever  the  Sicilian  production — which  cannot  increase 
largely  if  the  fresh  fruit  trade  holds — there  will  always  be  a  special  de- 
mand for  lime  oils  from  the  West  Indies,  provided  that  they  are  of  good 
and  uniform  quality.  In  this  business,  too,  the  Sicilians  have  been 
longer  in  the  field  and  their  lemon  oils  are  prepared  with  the  greatest 
care,  resulting  in  a  uniform  article,  so  that  buyers  know  they  can  rely 
upon  always  getting  the  same  quality.  Hand-pressed  lime  oil,  on  the 
other  hand,  varies  tremendously,  even  from  the  same  estate,  and  it 

^Report  of  Schimmel  &  Co.  (April-October,  1916),  p.  36.  The  exports  of 
lime  oil  from  Dominica  (Gildemeister  and  Hoffman)  during  the  years  1892  to 
1914  are  illustrated  by  Table  XL. 


MARKETING  231 

would  be  a  wise  step  for  a  planter  to  bulk,  say,  two  or  three  months' 
product  of  hand-pressed  oil  (keeping  out  any  of  bad  color)  and  ship- 
ping only  two  or  three  times  during  the  season.  This  would  give  him 
a  more  regular  quality  and  his  mark  would1  gradually  become  known. 

Oils  of  orange. — These  oils,  both  bitter  and  sweet,  have  been  pro- 
duced in  large  quantities  in  Italy  for  many  years.  Like  the  oils  of  lemon 
and  lime,  those  of  the  orange  are  used  in  perfumery  and  confectionery. 
Before  the  Messina  earthquake,  which  destroyed  large  quantities  of  oil 
in  Sicily,  the  West  Indian  product  had  been  too  inferior  to  compete  with 
the  Sicilian,  but  necessity  led  to  the  partial  substitution  of  West  Indian 
orange  oil  for  Sicilian.  It  is  worth  noting  that  as  the  demand  sprang  up 
the  oils  in  Jamaica  improved,  and  it  is  believed  that  good  prospects  lie 
before  West  Indian  orange  oils,  provided  that  only  good  qualities  are 
shipped.  The  cost  of  collection,  preparation,  and  freight  appears  to  be 
greater  in  Jamaica  than  in  Sicily,  and  it  would  scarcely  seem  to  pay  at 
less  than  45.  per  pound. 

SUMMARY 

1.  The  output  of  lime  products  in  the  tropics,  although  compara- 
tively small,  is  rapidly  increasing.     The  Sicilian  production  of  lemons 
is,  on  the  other  hand,  stationary,  but,  according  to  the  demand  of  the 
world's  market,  the  United  States  can  increase  her  output  of  citrate  at 
the  expense  of  fresh  lemons,  and  vice  versa.    Lime  growers  can  do  the 
same  to  a  certain  extent,  but  are  less  able  to  exert  influence  in  this 
respect. 

2.  An  examination  of  figures  relating  to  the  composition  of  the 
lemon  and  lime  shows  that  the  lime  is  richer  in  juice  and  citric  acid  than 
the  lemon,  but  the  lemon  generally  contains  more  essential  oil. 

3.  As  regards  cultivation  the  two  crops  differ  in  many  respects. 
Lemon  cultivation  seems  the  more  expensive  owing  to  the  necessity  for 
irrigation,  frost  protection,  and  handling,  but  lemon  products  can  be 
placed  on  the  European  market  at  less  expense  than  lime  products. 

4.  For  purposes  of  comparison,  the  lemon  may  be  regarded  as  yield- 
ing 634  Ib.  of  citric  acid  per  acre  against  914  Ib.  in  the  case  of  limes. 
The  figures  for  essential  oils  are  88  Ib.  and  65  Ib.  respectively. 

5.  In  view  of  the  probable  increase  in  the  Sicilian  output  of  citrate, 
lime-growers  might  with  advantage  increase  their  shipments  of  concen- 
trated juice  of  uniform  density  (about  100  oz.  of  citric  acid  per  gallon). 
Only  raw  lime  juice  of  the  best  quality  should  be  shipped.    Since  lime 
oils  are  used  for  different  purposes  from  lemon  oils,  they  cannot  be  said 
to  come  into  direct  competition  unless  the  qualities  of  one  (lemon  oil) 


232 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


are  so  inferior  as  to  permit  of  the  substitution  of  the  other.  Oils  take 
longer  to  sell  than  other  citrus  products.  Lime  oils  are  on  the  whole 
more  variable  than  lemon  oils. 

6.  It  is  not  possible  on  the  basis  of  available  information  to  compare 
the  profits  from  lemon  and  lime  cultivation.     With  good  prices  it  is 
probable  that  it  is  greater  in  the  case  of  limes. 

7.  As  regards  marketing,  the  existence  of  the  Sicilian  Camera  means 
lack  of  that  competition  among  buyers  which  is  enjoyed  by  the  lime- 
growing  industry.     At  the  same  time  the  Camera  insures  a  minimum 
price  for  lemon-growers. 

8.  There  is  a  very  great  variation  in  the  composition  of  citrus  juices 
offered  in  the  market. 

9.  A  profitable  trade  in  orange  oils  might  be  more  generally  estab- 
lished in  the  West  Indies. 

EUROPEAN  CITRIC  ACID  PRODUCTION 
CALCIUM    CITRATE 

The  output  of  calcium  citrate  in  Sicily  in  1913  was  6,000  tons,  be- 
sides 800  pipes  of  concentrated  juice;  in  1914  the  output  was  6,687  tons, 
and  in  1918,  9,087  tons.  The  mean  price  fixed  was  £52  per  ton  in  1905, 
£80  in  1907,  £50  in  1909,  and  £53  12s.  in  1910.  In  1909,  owing  to  the 
economic  crisis,  exportations  diminished  considerably  and  in  certain 
months  the  price  fell  to  £40  per  ton.  During  the  war  the  sale  price  for 
the  citrate  (64  per  cent)  was  fixed  at  280  pounds  per  ton  for  the  years 
1917-19. 

The  Sicilian  exports  and  imports  of  calcium  citrate  (in  casks  called 
pipes,  holding  305  kilo's)  were  as  is  shown  in  Table  XLI  (especially  to 
the  United  States,  France,  and  Great  Britain). 

TABLE  XLI 


1905 

1908 

1910 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

Tons  

4126 

7710 

6476 

7680 

3813 

5688 

6704 

7279 

5838 

3736 

Value  £  1000 

181 

401 

414 

488 

242 

428 

509 

553 

724 

463 

In  1913,  the  freight  for  calcium  citrate  from  Sicily  to  Marseilles 
was  about  los.  per  ton,  and  to  London,  i6s. 

In  the  West  Indies  the  crude  citrus  materials  produced  corresponded 
with  1,000  tons  of  calcium  citrate  in  1913  and  with  1,200  tons  in  1914. 


CITRIC   ACID 


The  annual  production  of  refined  citric  acid  in  Europe  was  about 
4,000  tons  in  1913,  and  the  price  varied  from  £108  to  £140  per  ton.    In 


CITRATE  PRODUCTION 


233 


general  the  price  rises  and  falls  with  that  of  tartaric  acid,  the  difference 
between  the  prices  of  the  two  acids  being  due  to  the  different  degrees  of 
acidity  (three  carboxyls  in  citric  acid  and  two  in  tartaric  acid)  and 
molecular  weights  (148.9  for  tartaric  acid  (-f-H2O)  and  208.5  f°r 
citric). 

If  all  the  juice  transformed  in  Sicily  into  calcium  citrate  for  expor- 
tation were  made  into  citric  acid,  the  annual  output  would  amount  to 
3,000  to  4,000  tons,  which  would  suffice  to  supply  the  whole  of  Europe. 

The  import  duty  in  Italy  was  formerly  £4  per  ton,  but  was  raised 
in  1909  to  £20  to  protect  a  large  factory,  with  £40,000  capital,  erected 
in  1910-11  near  Palermo;  during  the  war  this  factory  became  solely 
Italian,  with  the  title  Fabbrica  Chimica  Arenella,  and  it  now  supplies 
Italian  needs  for  citric  acid  and  is  able  to  export  a  considerable  quan- 
tity which  formerly  was  not  made  in  Italy,  the  manufacture  there  stop- 
ping with  the  production  of  citrate  of  lime. 

The  citric  acid  imported  into  and  exported  from  Italy  (Calabria  and 
Sicily)  is  shown  in  Table  XLII. 

TABLE  XLII 


1908 

1910 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

191? 

1918 

Imports  (tons)  . 
Value  (pounds). 
Exports  (tons)  . 
Value  (oounds). 

164 

24,332 
2-3 

109 

0.8 

127 

18,870 
2.3 

105 
220 

.12.  634 

32 
7,040 

599 
131.736 

18 
5,370 
755 

226.6SO 

26 
7,890 
1,045 
313.380 

832 
349,440 

754 
316.596 

The  output  of  citric  acid  in  Italy  in  1912  was  still  below  200  tons,  and 

in  1914  it  reached  800  tons,  the  capacity  of  the  factories  being  1,600  tons. 

The  French  imports  and  exports  in  tons  are  shown  in  Table  XLIII. 


TABLE  XLIII 


Citric  Acid 

1913 

1914 

I9IS 

1916 

T  •     /Imported  

134 

58 

19 

146 

Jmcel  Exported  

31 

12 

1  1 

131 

/~i      ,   i  /Imported  .  . 

29 

58 

37 

95 

Crystals  gP^gJ 

4S2 

24O 

272 

207 

For  Germany  the  imports  and  exports  in  tons  are  given  in  Table 
XLIV. 

TABLE  XLIV 


1902 

1905 

1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Imports.  .  .  . 

306 

193 

206 

178 

162 

310 

Exports.  .  .  . 

163 

379 

358 

38i 

553 

550 

528 

234  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

In  addition,  360  tons  of  lemon  juice  were  imported  into  Germany  in 
1908  and  170  tons  in  1909. 

In  Austria  there  were  in  1906  two  citric  acid  factories,  which  im- 
ported 54  tons  of  calcium  citrate  from  Sicily,  145  tons  from  Turkey,  and 
435  from  Greece.  France  had  then  two  factories,  these  importing  1,811 
tons  of  Sicilian  calcium  citrate  in  one  year.  In  Germany  there  were  nine 
citric  acid  works  and  four  of  pure  citrates,  1,318  tons  of  Sicilian  cal- 
cium citrate  being  imported  in  1908.  In  England  there  were  ten  works, 
almost  all  in  London.  The  United  States  has  very  large  factories  which 
produce  more  than  1,000  tons  of  citric  acid  and  import  also  a  certain 
quantity  from  Europe,  although  the  protective  duty  was  over  $150  per 
ton ;  calcium  citrate,  which  was  all  imported  (in  1911  about  2,800  tons,  of 
the  value  $180,000),  is  free  from  duty. 

COST  OF  MANUFACTURE  OF  ORANGE  VINEGAR 

With  prices  changing  as  they  have  been,  it  is  impossible  to  estimate 
accurately  the  costs  of  equipment,  material,  and  production.  However, 
the  price  of  apparatus  was  obtained  in  January,  1920,  and  approximate 
costs  of  production  at  that  time  can  be  estimated  from  figures  as  received 
from  apple  vinegar  manufacturers.  Summaries  only  will  be  given  here, 
but  the  costs  of  manufacturing  in  detail  will  be  found  in  an  article  by 
E.  M.  Chace  and  H.  D.  Poore. 

EQUIPMENT 

The  equipment  for  a  small  plant  using  a  hand-power  hydraulic  press, 
with  a  capacity  of  250  gal.  per  day,  would  cost  about  $2,000.  A  2,500- 
gal.  or  5o-barrel  plant  would  reach  $3,500  using  a  steam-power  hydraulic 
press.  A  continuous  type  press  would  add  about  50  per  cent  to  this  esti- 
mate. For  a  loo-barrel  plant,  the  figures  given  can  be  doubled.  The 
prices  include  pasteurizing,  bottling,  and  filtering  machines  which  cost 
$800  would  be  unnecessary  if  the  product  is  barreled. 

MATERIAL 

Frozen  fruit  can  be  obtained  for  the  cost  of  hauling,  about  $3  per 
ton,  while  sound  fruit  will  run  from  this  amount  to  $20  per  ton.  Frosted 
oranges  will  yield  as  low  as  40  gal.  per  ton,  while  sound  fruit  will  average 
about  70  gal. 

PRODUCTION   COSTS 

Apples  yield  as  high  as  180  gal.  of  juice  per  ton,  so  that  the  figures 
obtained  from  vinegar  manufacturers,  which  also  included  the  cost  of 
apples,  are  not  comparable  for  oranges.  However,  all  things  considered, 
10  cents  a  gallon  should  cover  the  cost  of  production,  including  overhead. 


CITRUS  OIL  PRICES 


235 


Table  XLVI  shows  the  cost  of  production  per  gallon  under  various 
conditions,  based  on  a  yield  of  70  gal.  per  ton.  Where  frozen  oranges 
are  used,  with  a  40-  to  5o-gal.  yield,  the  cost  per  gallon  of  raw  juice 
would  be  about  seven  cents. 

COMPARISON  WITH   APPLE  VINEGAR 

Apple  vinegar  in  bulk  retails  as  low  as  35  cents  per  gallon,  so  that 
with  oranges  at  over  $5  per  ton,  there  is  little  chance  to  compete  with 
cider  vinegar.  But  put  up  in  quart  bottles  under  well-established  brands, 
the  product  may  compete  with  the  fancy  grades  of  cider  vinegars,  which 
retail  in  quart  bottles  from  80  cents  to  $1.40  per  gallon-. 

TABLE  XLV 
CHANGES  IN  COMPOSITION  OCCURRING  DURING  THE  GENERATOR  PROCESS  (FROM  POORE) 


i 

1 

I 

Lot  Number 

Fresh 
Juice 

Fer- 
mented 
Juice 

A* 

Vinegar 

Fresh 
Juice 

Fer- 
mented 
Juice 

A* 

Vinegar 

Total  acid  as  citric  
Total  acid  as  acetic  

1.14 

I-I3 

2.53 

4.74. 

I.I4 

I.I4 

2.6-? 

4.7O 

Fixed  acid  as  citric  

1.  12 

I.  Ol 

1.09 

I.  O7 

1.  1* 

I.  O7 

I.  O7 

I.  O4. 

Volatile  acid  as  acetic  

O.OQ 

I.  SO 

-1.74, 

O.O7 

1.61 

1.71 

Total  solids  

13-39 

•1.64. 

.4.26 

A.I.  A. 

I  V4Q 

1-.4.1 

V8i 

4..O2 

Total  sugars  as  invert  

9.91 

O.2O 

0.87 

0.17 

Alcohol  pot  cent  by  (volume) 

S.71 

1.55 

O.41 

5.7C 

1.4.8 

O.17 

Total  ash  

O.4.8 

0.60 

0.61 

O.46 

0.  52 

O.SS 

Water-insoluble  ash  

O.  IO 

0.17 

0.17 

O.OQ 

0.  12 

O.I4 

Water-soluble  ash  

0.38 

0.4  \ 

0.44 

O.37 

O.4O 

O.4I 

Alkalinity  of  water-soluble 
ash  (cc.o.i  N/HC1  per 

IOO  CC.)  

51-2 

56.1 

55-2 

50.0 

52.1 

53-2 

"The  calculated  analyses  of  the  mixture  consisting  of  the  vinegar  left  in  the  generator  from  the 
previous  run  and  the  fermented  juice  of  this  run. 

CITRUS  OIL  PRICES1 

As  Meldrum2  has  pointed  out,  the  history  of  the  price  fluctuations  for 
essential  oils  has  shown  a  rhythmic  rise  in  prices  with  strengthening  de- 
mand followed  by  overproduction  and  consequent  price  depression.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  influences  of  speculation  often  have  a 
marked  effect  on  the  essential  oil  market.  It  is  not  uncommon  for  prices 
to  be  suddenly  forced  up  and  artificially  maintained  apparently  without 
any  sound  commercial  or  economic  reason.  Prices  for  the  individual  oils, 
shown  in  the  tables  on  pages  367-74,  are  discussed  on  page  238. 

'See  Appendix,  pp.  349-51,  363,  367-74,  for  detailed  statistics  on  quantities  and 
values  for  1898-1924. 

2W.  B.  Meldrum,  "Prices  of  Essential  Oils,  Flavoring  and  Perfume  Materials," 
War  Industries  Board  Price  Bulletin,  No.  50,  Washington  (1919). 


236 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


w 


"I 


•3 
$ 

<o  r^oo  «  •* 

N    «O  N    O    1^ 

rf  Tf  >OVO  vO 

O<00    M    rj-  r- 

<N  >o  ro  O  r^ 

Tj-  T<-  iovO  vO 

vO   •*  t^  Ov  « 

tnoo  to  M  o 

«    N    rO  •*  to 

vO   •*  t>-00   « 
O   to  O  r^  10 

N    M    fO  fO  Tj- 

0  O  O   O   O 
^ 

O  O  O  O  O 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

1 

rO  tO  ^t  "•)  >O 

88888 

o  o  o  o  o 

88888 

o  o  o  o  o 

s| 

.*  v 

«•» 

3 

C>        "•  «^  •* 

«o 

i 

O>  O   «   ro  •* 

0  0  0  0  0 
V* 

^8^8^^^ 

o  o  o  o  o 

•  1 

O 

CQ 

5  o  o  o  o 

J2 

<M 

CQ 
8 

O  O  O  O  O 

« 

o  o  o  o  o 

5? 

c 
« 

3 

o» 

BQ 
*N 

i 

J4 

3 

8 

0) 

•« 

^T> 

vO  vO  vO  vO  vO 

id 

s 

3 

fi. 

O  O  O  O  O 

s 

88888 

"-) 

1 

.3 

8 

O  O  O  O  O 

e 

o  o  o  o  o 

o 

s 

O 

*<3 

2 

t3 

?* 

>«i 
<^ 

^ 

•« 

i," 

i 

<0 

2 

e 

S0  V0  vO  VO  VO 

3 

w 

«, 

8 

1 

•« 

o 

o 
4! 

0§M 

PQ      c. 

• 

O 

^ 

<0 

V 

PQ 

O  O  O  O  O 

^^ 

G 

o  o  o  o  o 

J5 

c  two 
oi  c  e  « 

s'i-.s 

O  0  O  O  O 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

*^s> 
3.200 

r^ 

O  O  O  O  O 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

*jt 

f)  1-  ro  TJ-VO 
rj-  r^  Tf  «  00 

O    O    >i    N    M 

ro  11   <*5  -«J-vO 
TJ-  r^  -^-  >-  oo 

O    O    **    N    N 

CO  n   fO  ^VO 
Tj-  I--  rl-  «  00 

O  O  **  N  M 

fO  M   PO  •*>£> 

•«J-  t^  •*  "  00 
O    O    i-"    PI    M 

°O     M 

u°£ 

0  O  O  O  O 
^^ 

00000 

o  o  o  o  o 

o  o  o  o  o 

0.0  •- 

80  o  o  o 
O   0   0  O 

88888 

88888 

0   0   O  0  Q 

o  o  o  o  o 

JJ* 

CO  >O  O   <O  O 

M      «H      f« 

M 

to  >o  O  <o  O 

•1      M      W 

to  10  O  >o  O 

11    1-1    N 

rO  "0  O   >O  O 

M     «     M 

CITRUS  OIL  PRICES 


237 


3 


W 

5 


5  o 

25  O 

W  o 

O  5 

5  & 

'  o. 

Pd  g 

<  O 


o  3 

td      "? 

C     a3 


00^000000 


O   P»   Tj-  c;   ro 


dd»o 


t^    !     !  >O  rh  M  O  •<*•  «O    !' 

M     .     >  *Q  >*  ^y       fi<H4r>.O'^. 

O     '     '  O  O  O        fO^o^^^O*' 


. 

NOOI^Ot^. 


odd 


O»     '.      "   ON  ON  O 

d    :   •  d  d  d 


oOr<Ooor<MN«o>-ir*5       OO.OOO 


;ddd 


l- 


jDf    -5 

£*a  uo'o 


- 


ll|l  If 


238  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

Lemon  oil. — During  1913  the  price  of  lemon  oil  was  unusually  high 
and  in  August,  1913,  it  reached  $4.75  per  pound.  The  latter  months  of 
1913  saw  the  beginning  of  a  gradual  decline  and  during  the  first  quarter 
of  1914  the  price  had  dropped  as  low  as  $2.45.  Prices  continued  to  fall 
and  the  average  for  the  entire  year  of  1915  was  $1.075  Per  pound. 

The  lowest  price  in  recent  years  was  reached  during  August  and 
September  of  1916,  when  the  oil  was  quoted  at  90  cents  per  pound.  There 
were  occasional  fluctuations  during  1917,  1918,  and  1919,  but  this  is  not 
shown  by  the  yearly  averages,  which  were  as  follows:  1917,  $1.125; 
1918,  $1.158;  and  1919,  $1.275. 

Orange  oil. — During  the  period  1913  to  1915  orange-oil  prices  fol- 
lowed the  same  general  decline  as  did  those  for  lemon  oil.  The  yearly 
averages  were  as  follows :  1913,  $3-3J35 ;  I9J4>  $2-475 ;  and  1915,  $1.70. 
In  May,  1916,  the  price  had  increased  to  $2.85,  and  in  October  to  $3. 
This  high  level  was  maintained  during  1917  and  for  most  of  1918. 
Toward  the  end  of  1919  a  further  increase  brought  the  price  up  to  $3.25 
per  pound. 

Oil  of  bergawiot. — The  average  prices  for  bergamot  oil  during  the 
last  seven  years  have  been  as  follows:  1913,  $6.0667  P61"  pound;  1914, 
$5.45  per  pound ;  1915,  $3.2125  per  pound ;  1916,  $4.20  per  pound ;  1917, 
$5.9792  per  pound;  1918,  $6.0708  per  pound;  1919,  $5-7375  per  pound. 

From  $6.50  per  pound  in  January,  1913,  the  price  dropped  to  $3  in 
April,  1915,  but  since  that  time  there  has  been  a  gradual  increase  which 
reached  a  maximum  of  $7.50  in  October  and  November,  1918.  Syn- 
thetic oil  of  bergamot,  although  of  somewhat  lower  price,  has  followed 
the  same  general  trend  as  the  natural  product. 

Oil  of  limes. — Price  quotations  for  oil  of  limes  are  shown  only  occa- 
sionally in  the  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter.  The  price  of  the  expressed 
oil  varied  between  $3  and  $4  per  pound  during  1914,  1915,  1916,  and 
1917.  In  January,  1918,  expressed  oil  of  limes  was  quoted  at  $5.75  to 
$6,  and  in  January,  1919,  at  $4.90  to  $5.  Distilled  oil  of  limes  was  quoted 
at  75  cents  in  August,  1914,  but  by  the  beginning  of  1916  the  price  had 
advanced  to  $2.50,  and  this  level,  with  only  a  little  variation,  has  been 
maintained  since  that  time. 

Oil  of  Neroli. — Several  varieties  of  this  very  valuable  essential  oil  are 
shown  in  the  price  quotations.  For  a  year  and  a  half  prior  to  the  war, 
oil  of  Neroli  petale,  was  quoted  at  $45  per  pound.  In  July,  1914,  fear  of 
a  short  crop  caused  a  rise  to  $5 1  and  further  increase  to  $60  followed  in 
October.  During  1915,  however,  there  was  a  return  to  the  pre-war  level, 
which  was  maintained  during  1916,  and  the  first  half  of  1917.  Short 
crops  and  labor  difficulties  at  that  time  caused  an  increase  to  $85  in 


CITRUS  OIL  PRICES  239 

October,  1917,  and  to  $90  during  November  and  December  of  1918. 
Supplies  continued  to  be  short  during  1919,  and  by  the  end  of  the  year 
oil  of  neroli  petale  had  reached  $130  per  pound.  Oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade 
generally  commands  a  slightly  lower  price  and  in  January,  1920,  it  was 
quoted  at  $120.  A  synthetic  neroli  has  been  quoted  since  1918  and  has 
varied  in  price  from  $15  to  $30  per  pound. 

Citrus  oils  imported  into  the  United  States  for  the  most  part  do  not 
compete  with  domestic  products.  Lemon  and  orange  oils  are  produced 
in  this  country,  but  as  yet  the  industries  are  able  to  supply  only  a  rela- 
tively small  proportion  of  the  consumption.  Since  lemon  and  orange 
oils  are  by-products  of  the  citrus  industry,  it  may  be  urged  that  their  com- 
plete recovery  will  utilize  inferior  grades  of  fruit  which  at  present  are 
wasted.  In  this  way  their  recovery  would  strengthen  the  citrus  industry 
without  increasing  the  prices  for  its  principal  products.  On  the  other 
hand,  these  articles  require  a  large  amount  of  hand  labor  and  for  that 
reason  they  cannot  be  prepared  under  the  same  methods  as  cheaply  in 
the  United  States  as  abroad.  The  application  of  machine  methods  has 
been  tried  and  has  undoubtedly  lowered  the  cost  of  production,  but  the 
products  thus  obtained  are  not  identical  with  the  hand-pressed  oils  and 
are  of  less  value.  Superior  methods  of  cultivation  used  in  America  have 
resulted  in  a  smaller  proportion  of  "culls"  or  inferior  fruit  than  is  ob- 
tained abroad — and  it  is  therefore  doubtful  whether  a  domestic  citrus 
products  industry  can  ever  be  developed  sufficiently  to  supply  the  entire 
American  demand. 

The  imposition  of  a  duty  on  the  citrus  oils  by  the  United  States  in 
1913  has  had  little  if  any  effect  upon  the  volume  of  the  imports,  and  has 
resulted  in  an  annual  revenue  of  about  $135,000.  These  oils  are  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  perfumes,  and  flavors  for  soft  drinks,  and  confec- 
tions, and  in  this  connection  may  be  regarded  in  the  class  of  luxuries. 
However,  in  establishing  the  rates  of  duty  on  these  oils,  consideration 
should  logically  be  given  to  the  rates  imposed  upon  the  finished  products 
— perfumes  and  flavors. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XI 

CALIFORNIA  CITRUS  LEAGUE. 

Brief  of  Facts  relating  to  the  By-Products  of  the  Citrus  Industry  Pre- 
sented to  the  Finance  Committee,  United  States  Senate  (August, 
1921). 

CHACE,  EDWARD  M.,  and  POORE,  HOMER  D. 
California  Citrograph,  V  (July,  1920),  282. 
Florida  Grower,  XXII  (July  24,  1920),  4. 


240  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

DUNLAP,  W.  R. 

"Notes  on  the  Lime  and  Lemon  as  Sources  of  Citric  Acid  and  Essential 
Oils,"  Bulletin  of  the  Imperial  Institute,  XIII  (1915),  66-87. 

GILDEMEISTER,  E.,  and  HOFFMAN,  FR. 
The  Volatile  Oils  (26.  ed.),  II,  407. 

MOLINARE,  ETTORE. 

General  and  Industrial  Organic  Chemistry.    Translated  by  T.  H.  Pope. 
Philadelphia :  P.  Blakiston  &  Sons  Co. 

POORE,  HOMER  D. 

"Orange  Vinegar — Its  Manufacture  and  Composition,"  Journal  of  In- 
dustrial and  Engineering  Chemistry,  XII  (December,  1920),  1176. 

POWELL,  G.  H.,  and  CHACE,  EDWARD  M. 

"Italian  Lemons  and  Their  By-Products,"  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Bulletin  No.  160  (1908). 

ROURE— BERTRAND  FILS. 

Scientific  and  Industrial  Bulletin,  Series  3,  No.  3  (April,  1911),  p.  64. 
Grasse,  France. 


Lime  Cultivation  in  the  West  Indies  (1913). 

Annual  Reports  of  West  Indian  Departments  of  Agriculture  (1913-14). 
"The  Lemon  Industry  in  Sicily,"  West  Indian  Bulletin,  V  (1905),  63. 
"Citrus  Industry  for  India,"  Indian  Trade  Journal,  XII  (1909),  151. 

Reports  for  the  Years  1912  and  1013  on  the  Trade  and  Commerce  of  Sicily, 
Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports,  Ann.  Ser.,  Nos.  5106  (Cd.  6665-64) 
and  5330  (Cd.  7048-147). 

"Lime  Cultivation  in  Guadeloupe,"  Journal  d' Agriculture  Tropicale  (Febru- 
ary, March,  1912). 

"Lemon  Culture  in  North  Africa,"  Perfumery  and  Essential  Oil  Record 
(August,  1914),  p.  336. 

"Commercial  Notes  on  Essential  Oils,"  Semi-Annual  Report  of  Schimmel  & 
Co.  (April,  1913,  October,  1913). 

"Composition  of  Oranges  and  Lemons,"  West  Indian  Agricultural  Nevus, 
III,  228. 

"Lemons  in  Dominica,"  West  Indian  Agricultural  News,  XIII,  180. 

"Concentration  of  Lime  Juice  in  Steam-Heated  Vats,"  West  Indian  Agricul- 
tural News,  XIII,  231. 

"Government  Lime  Juice  Factory  in  St.  Lucia,  British  West  Indies,"  West 
Indian  Agricultural  News,  XIII,  245. 


CHAPTER  XII 
THE  INDUSTRY  IN  NORTH  AMERICA 

CITRUS  OIL  PRODUCTION 

Orange  and  lemon  oils  are  the  only  citrus  oils  prepared  on  a  com- 
mercial scale  in  the  United  States.  In  comparison  with  the  large  pro- 
duction in  Italy,  the  domestic  output  is  insignificant.  The  production  of 
lemon  oil,  which  is  limited  to  California,  was  estimated  in  1917  at  6,000 
lb.,  or  about  I  per  cent  of  our  imports.  The  domestic  production  of 
orange  oil  during  the  same  year  was  declared  to  be  negligible.1 

IMPORTS  OF  CITRUS  OILS 

Imports  of  all  essential  and  distilled  oils  had  increased  in  value  from 
$2,118,102  in  1910  to  $4,905,157  in  1913.  The  imports  declined  until 
1916,  from  which  time  they  showed  a  gradual  increase,  amounting  in 
1918  to  $3,948,059.  Of  the  total  imports  of  essential  oils,  about  30  per 
cent  are  represented  by  citrus  oils,  as  may  be  seen  in  the  table  on  page 

Lemon  oil. — Imports  of  lemon  oil  prior  to  the  war  showed  little  vari- 
ation in  quantity,  averaging  about  400,000  lb.  The  considerable  variation 
in  value,  however,  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  in  1910  imports  of  415,819 
lb.  were  valued  at  $310,543,  while  in  1913,  400,424  lb.  were  valued  at 
$794,215 — an  increase  of  over  100  per  cent.  Since  1914  there  has  been 
a  'slight  increase  over  pre-war  imports,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  since 
October,  1913,  lemon  oil  (formerly  on  the  free  list)  has  been  dutiable  at 
10  per  cent  ad  valorem.  Imports  for  the  period  1915-19  averaged 
494,613  lb.,  valued  at  $434,734- 

The  decrease  in  imports  during  the  fiscal  year  1919  was  probably 
caused  by  the  fact  that  the  Italian  government  during  1918  requisitioned 
a  large  part  of  the  oil  of  lemon  output  to  be  used  as  a  substitute  for  tur- 
pentine, sorely  needed  in  that  country  for  use  in  painting  battleships  and 
other  military  equipment.  Over  95  per  cent  of  the  imports  of  lemon  oil 
are  furnished  by  Italy. 

Orange  oil. — Imports  of  orange  oil  have  been  much  less  than  those  of 
lemon  oil,  but  have  shown  considerably  wider  variation.  Imports  in 
1912  amounted  to  97,065  lb.  valued  at  $168,831  and  in  1913  to  79,797 
lb.  valued  at  $155,299.  There  has  been  a  considerable  increase  since 

^ee  War  Industries  Price  Bulletin,  No.  50. 

241 


242  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

1914;  imports  in  1918  were  more  than  double  the  average  pre-war  im- 
ports. 

Oil  of  bergamot. — Maximum  imports  in  recent  years  were  received  in 
1908  and  amounted  to  94,967  Ib.  valued  at  $284,173.  For  three  years 
prior  to  the  act  of  1913,  imports  had  averaged  about  65,000  Ib.,  but  in 
1914,  simultaneously  with  the  imposition  of  a  duty  of  20  per  cent,  imports 
decreased  to  36,500  Ib.  Since  that  time  the  imports  have  shown  a  tend- 
ency to  increase  and  in  1916  surpassed  the  1913  figure.  The  value  per  unit 
quantity  has  varied  from  $4.84  in  1913  to  $2.56  in  1916.  Hand-pressed 
bergamot  oil  has  come  almost  entirely  from  Italy,  but  before  the  war 
Germany  furnished  the  United  States  with  considerable  quantities  of 
artificial  bergamot  oil  and  also  with  certain  highly  refined  grades. 

Oil  of  limes. — Imports  of  oil  of  limes  have  shown  variation  both  in 
quantity  and  value.  In  1908  the  imports  amounted  to  6,765  Ib.  valued 
at  about  75  cents  a  pound,  and  in  1918  they  reached  29,137  Ib.  valued  at 
over  $2.50  per  pound.  The  imposition  of  a  duty  on  oil  of  limes  in  1913 
had  no  noticeable  effect  upon  the  imports. 

Neroli  or  orange  flower  oil. — Maximum  pre-war  imports  of  neroli 
were  received  in  1913  and  amounted  to  38,365  Ib.  valued  at  $171,932. 
During  1914  and  1915  there  was  a  decrease  of  about  30  per  cent  in  the 
imports  but  in  1916  and  again  in  1918,  imports  were  in  excess  of  30,000 
Ib.  The  value  per  unit  of  quantity  has  varied  from  $10.50  per  pound  in 
1908  to  $1.93  in  1916. 

Cedrat  oil. — Only  a  very  small  quantity  of  cedrat  oil  is  imported  into 
the  United  States.  The  maximum  imports  in  1915  were  788  Ib.  valued 
at  $3,721.  The  large  variation  in  value  is  probably  due  to  the  fact  that 
various  fictitious  oils  are  offered  under  the  name  of  cedrat,  and  that  the 
genuine  oil  from  Citrus  medica  is  rarely  met  with  in  commerce. 

THE   CITRATE   AND   CITRIC    ACID    INDUSTRY 

The  citrate  of  lime  and  citric  acid  industry  in  the  United  States  is 
divided  into  two  distinct  branches.  Three  firms,  located  along  the  At- 
lantic Coast,  specialize  in  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid  and  citrates  from 
citrate  of  lime,  imported  chiefly  from  Sicily,  or  made  from  concentrated 
juices  of  citrus  fruits,  imported  chiefly  from  the  Dominican  Republic. 

In  California  there  are  several  firms  which  make  citrate  of  lime  and 
citric  acid  from  lemons.  Some  of  these  western  firms  ship  citrate  of 
lime  to  the  eastern  manufacturers.  One  firm  has  been  operating  for 
about  27  years ;  the  others  have  all  begun  operation  since  1915. 

The  manufacture  of  citric  acid  in  the  United  States  is  shown  in  Table 
XLVIII.  The  figures  for  1904,  1909,  and  1914  are  taken  from  the  United 


CITRUS  OIL  PRODUCTION  243 

States  census.  The  figures  for  1915,  1916,  and  1917  are  compiled  from 
reports  made  to  the  United  States  Tariff  Commission  by  the  manufac- 
turers. 

TABLE  XLVIII 
CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  1904-17 


Year 

Quantity 
(Pounds) 

Year 

Quantity 
(Pounds) 

IQOA 

2,265,631 

IQI  S 

3,417,795 

IOOQ 

2,102,256 

1016    . 

4,188,538 

IOTA 

2.720.041 

IQI7  .    . 

4,032,297 

IMPORTS  OF  CITRATE  OF  LIME  AND  CITRIC  ACID 

The  table  of  imports  (pages  352-53)  show  that  the  amount  of  citric 
acid  imported  as  such  is  small  in  comparison  with  the  imports  in  the 
form  of  citrate  of  lime.  Since  the  imports  of  citric  acid  during  the  years 
1910-12  exceeded  the  exports  from  Italy,  it  is  obvious  that  this  acid  must 
have  come  from  European  countries  other  than  Sicily.  Under  the  Tariff 
Act  of  1909,  with  citrate  of  lime  on  the  free  list  and  citric  acid  dutiable 
at  7  cents  per  pound  the  imports  of  citric  acid  dwindled  to  an  insignificant 
amount.  The  Tariff  Act  of  1913  put  a  duty  of  i  cent  per  pound  on 
citrate  of  lime,  and  lowered  the  duty  on  citric  acid  from  7  cents  per 
pound  to  5  cents  per  pound.  These  changes  in  duties,  which  occurred 
almost  simultaneously  with  the  development  of  the  manufacture  of  citric 
acid  in  Italy  (see  Table  XLII),  were  followed  by  a  large  increase  in 
imports  of  citric  acid  from  8,677  Ib.  in  1913  to  652,210  Ib.  during  the 
1914  fiscal  year  and  to  722,434  Ib.  during  the  1915  fiscal  year. 

TARIFF  PROBLEMS 

Citrate  of  lime  and  citric  acid  present  two  distinct  tariff  problems. 
The  first  problem  is  the  general  one,  whether  these  articles  should  be 
placed  on  the  free  list,  or  subject  to  a  duty  for  the  purpose  of  raising 
revenue  or  for  the  protection  of  an  American  industry.  The  tariff  treat- 
ment is  necessarily  related  to  that  of  lemons,  the  major  product  of  the 
industry,  which  are  now  given  a  protective  duty.  There  is,  however,  a 
difference  between  the  two  products — lemons  and  citric  acid — in  that 
lemons  are  an  agricultural  product  with  no  mechanical  or  technical 
processes,  whereas  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid  presents  new  technical 
and  commercial  problems.  It  may  be  urged,  further,  that  the  full  re- 
covery of  the  by-products  will  utilize  a  material  formerly  wasted  and 
will  strengthen  the  lemon  industry  without  raising  the  price  of  lemons 
to  the  public.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  likely  that  the  by-product 
industry  will  develop  sufficiently  to  supply  the  entire  American  demand 


244  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

unless  the  duty  is  made  so  high  as  to  result  in  the  use  of  fruit  of  good 
enough  quality  to  be  salable  as  fresh  fruit  and  to  exclude  the  by-products 
from  abroad  made  from  cull  lemons. 

The  second  problem  is  the  proper  relationship  between  the  rates  of 
duty  on  citrate  and  citric  acid  made  therefrom.  Prior  to  the  passage  of 
the  1913  Tariff  Act  citrate  of  lime  was  free  and  the  margin  in  favor  of 
the  acid  was  7  cents  per  pound,  which  shut  out  the  foreign  acid  almost 
entirely.  The  imposition  of  a  duty  of  i  cent  per  pound  on  citrate  of 
lime  did  not  decrease  imports,  and  it  raised  over  $60,000  revenue  per 
year.  At  the  'same  time  that  this  duty  became  effective  there  was  a  re- 
duction in  the  duty  on  citric  acid  from  7  cents  to  5  cents  per  pound,  and 
at  about  the  same  time  there  was  a  development  of  the  manufacture  of 
citric  acid  in  Italy.  The  result  of  these  changes  in  competitive  conditions 
was  an  increase  in  imports  of  citric  acid  to  about  15  or  20  per  cent  of  the 
consumption  during  1914  and  1915,  an  increase  sufficient  to  furnish 
some  competition  to  the  domestic  industry.  During  recent  years  there 
has  been  a  fall  in  imports,  resulting  in  part  at  least  from  war  conditions. 

CALIFORNIA 

The  citrus  by-product  industry  in  southern  California  is  located  in 
those  counties  that  raise  most  of  the  citrus  fruit,  viz.,  Santa  Barbara, 
Ventura,  Los  Angeles,  Orange,  Riverside,  San  Bernardino,  and  San 
Diego.  The  chief  cities  interested  follow  the  periphery  of  a  triangle 
whose  vertices  lie  at  Los  Angeles,  San  Bernardino,  and  San  Diego. 

Cultural  conditions  are  generally  the  same  for  the  entire  area.  The 
cost  of  fruit  production  therefore  as  well  as  the  percentage  of  culls  is 
nearly  equal  over  the  entire  citrus  belt.  Transportation  charges,  how- 
ever, constitute  a  factor  of  importance  in  the  location  of  successful  by- 
product plants. 

It  is  manifestly  less  costly  to  sort  and  pack  the  fruit  than  to  transform 
it  into  oil  and  citrate,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  less  difficult  to  trans- 
port these  final  products  than  the  original  fruit,  which  requires  such 
careful  handling  and  is  subject  to  decay. 

By-products  offer  a  more  tempting  field  for  speculation,  citric  acid 
keeping  indefinitely,  while  large  quantities  of  oil  may  be  held  over  from 
crop  to  crop  to  secure  a  satisfactory  price. 

During  1924  over  2,000  carloads  of  lemons  were  processed,  producing 
30,000  pounds  of  pectin,  60,000  pounds  of  lemon  oil,  and  1,000,000 
pounds  of  crystallized  citric  acid. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  fourteen  concerns  listed  as  producing 
five  main  products.  There  are  four  concerns  producing  citric  acid,  one 


CALIFORNIA  245 

producing  citrate  of  lime,  seven  producing  peel  in  one  form  or  another, 
five  producing  juice,  and  three  producing  oil.  Some  of  the  firms  listed 
are  recent  and  may  possibly  not  endure  as  permanent  commercial  con- 
cerns. The  by-product  industry  has  undoubtedly,  however,  taken  great 
strides  in  the  past  few  years.  Two  of  the  citric  acid  plants  are  of  very 
large  capacity.  Both  could  undoubtedly  exceed  10,000  tons  capacity  per 
annum,  if  necessary.  Indeed,  with  no  very  serious  alterations,  it  would 
be  possible  to  increase  the  capacity  to  twenty  thousand  tons  each.  The 
third  citric  acid  plant  has  a  capacity  of  2,500  tons  and  the  citrate  of  lime 
plant  a  capacity  of  8,000  tons  or  more.  A  very  conservative  estimate  of 
the  entire  capacity  for  handling  lemons  of  the  four  plants  as  they  stand 
today  would  be  from  30,000  to  40,000  tons. 

Practically  all  of  the  oranges  absorbed  for  by-products  at  the  present 
time  are  going  into  marmalade  factories.  One  concern  alone  has  a 
capacity  of  about  5,000  tons  of  fruit,  and  estimates  of  the  other  con- 
cerns now  operating  vary  from  5,000  to  10,000  tons. 

This  state  of  affairs  has  also  been  reflected  in  the  price  of  cull  fruit 
during  the  past  few  years.  Up  until  1915-16,  it  was  not  at  all  difficult 
to  secure  cull  oranges  and  lemons  at  $5  per  ton  for  sound  culls.  During 
the  season  of  1919  when  the  crop  conditions  were  nearly  normal,  it  was 
necessary  to  pay  from  $20  to  $30  a  ton  for  material  of  the  same  grade. 
Whether  these  prices  will  continue,  with  competition  from  foreign 
products,  and  in  seasons  when  the  crops  are  abundant,  is  a  matter  of 
some  doubt.  There  are  a  number  of  citric  acid  and  citrate  manufac- 
turers who  are  in  the  market  to  purchase  cull  lemons  at  prices  which 
could  hardly  be  realized  by  the  small  producer  from  the  sale  of  citrate 
alone. 

Apparatus  for  the  manufacture  of  oil  from  both  oranges  and  lemons 
is  now  under  construction  in  more  than  one  place  in  the  state,  but  has 
not  been  sufficiently  developed  to  be  available  to  the  average  fruit-grower. 
The  market  for  lemon  peel  in  brine,  candied  or  dried  peel,  seems 
limited  at  present,  and  none  is  produced  unless  contracted  for  in  advance. 
The  question  of  the  disposal  of  the  unsalable  oranges  has  scarcely 
been  solved  by  their  use  in  marmalade,  enormous  quantities  of  which 
having  been  manufactured.  Professor  Cruess,  of  the  University  of  Cali- 
fornia, suggested,  in  the  California  Cultivator  of  January  n,  1919,  a 
method  of  canning  orange  marmalade  stock,  i.e.,  the  fruit  without  sugar. 
It  is  true  that  the  amount  of  marmalade  made  in  1919  was  probably  not 
excessive  when  compared  with  some  other  preserves  already  on  the 
market,  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  orange  marmalade  must  make 
its  way  by  displacing  to  some  extent  other  material  more  or  less  firmly 


246  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

established  in  the  menus  of  American  homes.  The  increase  in  produc- 
tion of  this  commodity  in  California  in  that  year  was  estimated  at  ap- 
proximately 500  per  cent  and  would  have  been  more  than  double  that  if 
all  the  frozen  fruit  had  been  taken  care  of  in  this  way. 

The  question  of  manufacturing  orange  vinegar  on  a  large  scale  to 
compete  with  eastern  cider  vinegar  is  a  matter  for  consideration  in  the 
future.  At  the  present  demand  for  culls,  however,  together  with  in- 
creased freight  rates  and  cost  of  cooperage,  there  seems  to  be  no  chance 
of  competing  in  middle  western  or  eastern  markets  with  cider  vinegar. 
The  vinegar  can  be  made  of  excellent  quality,  of  fine  fruity  flavor,  but 
it  has  not  a  characteristic  orange  flavor. 

There  has  been  some  demand  for  dried  orange  peel,  for  use  in  mince 
meat,  and  also,  it  has  been  rumored,  for  use  in  chewing  tobacco.  Several 
carloads  went  East  in  1917  and  the  demand  will  probably  continue  until 
a  foreign  product  appears  on  the  market,  when  it  will  be  a  question  of 
cheaper  production  or  tariff  protection.  Candied  peel  is  readily  made 
but  the  consumption  is  not  large.  No  method  has  been  developed  for  pro- 
ducing a  first-class  merchantable  orange  juice. 

Grapefruit  can  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  marmalades,  a  very 
desirable  product  being  made  to  contain  as  high  as  33  per  cent. 

Satisfactory  candied  peel  of  grapefruit  is  also  easily  produced  on  a 
large  or  small  scale  (see  chap.  iv).  The  equipment  is  inexpensive  and 
easily  obtained.  Where  large  quantities  are  put  up,  the  time  can  be 
shortened  very  materially  by  the  use  of  the  vacuum  pressure  methods. 
Here  an  autoclave  is  used  for  heating  the  peel  under  high  vacuum,  fol- 
lowed by  a  heating  in  syrup  under  pressure.  The  impregnation  is 
hastened  in  this  way  and  a  clear  article  is  produced.  This  candied  peel 
can  be  cut  into  very  thin  strips  and  used  in  marmalade  very  satisfactorily. 

It  is  possible  to  prepare  a  satisfactory  beverage  from  grapefruit, 
although  the  use  of  frozen  material  in  its  preparation  is  questioned.  The 
great  trouble  with  California  grapefruit  juice  is  the  same  difficulty  that 
gives  California  grapefruit  itself  its  generally  poor  reputation,  i.e.,  imma- 
turity. Few  California  grapefruit  growers  are  willing  to  allow  their 
fruit  to  mature  before  harvesting  it,  a  fact  to  which  A.  D.  Shamel,  of 
the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  has  repeatedly  called  at- 
tention. 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  CITRIC  ACID  FROM  LEMONS 

The  first  serious  attempt  to  convert  the  lower  grades  of  California 
lemons  into  by-products  was  made  in  1898  at  National  City,  San  Diego 
County. 


CALIFORNIA 


247 


Other  factories  for  the  production  of  various  products  from  citrus 
fruits  have  been  started  at  various  times  at  Pasadena,  Redlands,  Santa 
Ana,  Riverside,  and  other  places.  An  account  of  these  has  been  given  by 
Will. 


SHIPPING  PACKAGE 


(Wilson:  Jour.  Ind.  and  Eng.  Chem.) 

FIG.  20. — Flow  sheet  for  manufacture  of  citric  acid  from  lemons. 

Work  along  similar  lines  in  connection  with  Florida  oranges  has 
been  published  by  McDermott  and  by  Walker. 


248  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  became  interested  in 
the  possibility  of  developing  a  citrus  by-products  industry  in  this  country, 
and  in  1907  sent  E.  M.  Chace  to  Italy  to  study  similar  industries  there. 

Chace  made  a  survey  of  the  lemon  industry  in  California  in  1908,  and 
as  a  result  of  his  work  the  Department  established  the  Citrus  By-Products 
Laboratory  in  1911  at  Los  Angeles. 

The  early  work  of  this  laboratory  was  done  by  H.  S.  Bailey  and 
C.  P.  Wilson  under  the  direction  of  Chace,  who  has  been  in  charge  of 
the  laboratory  since  its  beginning.  The  Citrus  By-Products  Laboratory 
secured  accurate  data  on  the  methods  applicable  to  the  manufacture  of 
citric  acid,  and  the  yield  to  be  expected  from  lemons. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  average  haul  by  which  citrus  fruit 
raised  in  California  reaches  its  market  is  about  2,500  miles.  This  pre- 
cludes the  shipment  of  anything  but  sound  fruit  of  good  appearance  and 
keeping  quality.  There  is  necessarily  left  a  large  quantity  of  fruit  that  is 
not  fit  to  pack  and  ship  and  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid.  This 
is  culled  out  for  reasons  such  as  irregular  shape,  oversize,  undersize,  frost 
damage,  heat  damage,  clipper  cuts  caused  by  careless  picking,  thorn 
pricks,  wind  scars,  thrips  marks,  excessive  scale,  or  any  sort  of  mechan- 
ical injury  or  indication  of  decay  or  imperfection  of  any  kind. 

The  steps  in  the  process  of  manufacture  of  citric  acid  may  be  followed 
by  means  of  Figure  20. 

Extraction  of  juice. — All  the  citric  acid  in  a  lemon  is  contained  in  the 
juice,  so  that  the  separation  of  juice  from  the  pulp  may  be  considered 
the  first  step  in  the  recovery  of  the  acid. 

The  fruit  is  shoveled  or  dumped  on  to  a  broad  belt  conveyor  and,  if 
other  products  than  acid  are  to  be  made,  is  graded  to  give  the  kind  of 
fruit  needed  for  such  a  product.  Any  lemon  can  be  used  to  make  citric 
acid,  though,  of  course,  the  yield  varies  enormously  from  as  low  as  15 
Ibs.  per  ton  from  badly  frozen  lemons  to  50  Ibs.  or  more  from  the  thin- 
skinned  juicy  "lemonettes."  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  the  effect  of 
frost  is  to  decrease  the  amount  of  juice  in  the  fruit  and  also  the  per- 
centage of  acid  which  remains  in  the  juice. 

The  fruit  passes  from  the  grading  belt  by  way  of  a  bucket  elevator 
to  a  pair  of  cutting  knives  which  tear  the  lemons  coarsely  and  drop  them 
into  a  set  of  wood  roller  crushers  which  thoroughly  bruise  the  fruit  and 
press  out  some  of  the  juice.  The  crushed  fruit  drops  into  the  hopper  of 
a  continuous  screw  press  where  most  of  the  juice  is  removed.  The  con- 
tinuous presses  are  similar  to  those  used  for  pressing  moisture,  fat,  or 
oils  from  fish,  scraps,  copra,  vegetable  seeds,  etc. 


CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE  249 

From  the  first  press  the  juice  runs  to  the  measuring  tank,  while  the 
pulp  is  passed  through  a  soaking  box  where  it  is  saturated  with  water. 
From  this  the  wet  pulp  is  dumped  into  another  continuous  press  and  the 
juice  goes  to  the  same  measuring  tank  as  did  the  first  juice.  Pulp  from 
the  second  press  is  elevated  to  the  hopper  of  a  third  press,  and  receives 
a  spray  of  water  as  it  ascends  the  elevator.  Juice  from  the  third  press 
serves  as  maceration  water  for  the  first  soaking,  while  the  pulp  passes 
out  and  is  used  as  fertilizer. 

One  ton  of  lemons  contains  on  the  average  about  70  Ibs.  of  total  acid 
(calculated  as  crystallized  citric  acid).  Using  the  extraction  process  de- 
scribed above,  85  per  cent  or  more  of  this  acid  is  obtained  in  the  juice. 
Pure  pressed  lemon  juice  contains  from  6  to  7  per  cent  citric  acid,  but 
on  account  of  the  dilution  by  maceration  water  the  mixed  juice  obtained 
in  factory  practice  averages  about  4  per  cent  acid  and  contains  about  5 
to  5.5  per  cent  of  total  solids.  The  juice  contains  about  0.5  per  cent  of 
insoluble  solids  and  is  rather  thick  and  pulpy.  It  is  stored  in  wooden 
tanks  of  about  57,000  liters  capacity,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to  undergo 
fermentation  for  about  four  or  five  days  in  warm  weather,  or  about  ten 
days  in  cold  weather.  This  fermentation  seems  to  liquefy  some  of  the 
mucilaginous,  slimy  constituents  and  to  coagulate  others.  The  sugars 
are  completely  removed.  The  chemistry  of  this  change  has  not  been 
worked  out  in  detail,  but  it  has  been  shown  that  the  loss  of  citric  acid 
by  fermentation  is  negligible  for  the  first  few  days.  Factory  experi- 
ence has  thoroughly  demonstrated  that  fresh  juice  is  very  difficult  to 
filter,  while  properly  fermented  juice  filters  easily  and  requires  a  mini- 
mum of  filter-eel. 

After  proper  fermentation,  the  juice  is  thoroughly  agitated  so  as  to 
reincorporate  the  pulp,  which  during  fermentation  has  partly  sunk  to  the 
bottom  and  partly  risen  to  the  top,  leaving  a  clear  layer  in  the  middle. 
In  earlier  practice  this  middle  portion  was  drawn  off  and  used  without 
filtration,  and  the  pulp  was  washed  by  agitation  with  water  and  subse- 
quent settling  and  decantation.  This  was  a  slow,  wasteful  process  and 
left  in  the  tanks  a  slimy  voluminous  residue  that  was  very  troublesome 
to  handle.  The  present  practice  is  to  filter  the  whole  juice  after  boiling 
with  filter-eel.  The  well-mixed  fermented  juice  is  pumped  into  pine 
tanks  2.4  m.  deep  and  2.4  m.  in  diameter,  equipped  with  copper  heating 
coils  and  mechanical  agitators.  About  7,500  liters  are  handled  at  a 
charge,  and  enough  filter-eel  is  added  to  clarify  the  juice  on  boiling.  The 
operator  adds  the  amount  of  filter-eel  he  deems  necessary  as  indicated  by 
experience,  and  brings  the  juice  to  a  boil.  A  sample  is  withdrawn,  and 
if  it  clears  quickly  by  settling  it  is  ready  to  filter.  If  it  does  not  clear 


250  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

readily,  more  filter-eel  is  added.  The  juice  is  again  boiled  and  the  test 
repeated  until  the  juice  is  ready  to  filter.  On  the  average,  about  12  to 
20  kilos  of  filter-eel  are  required  for  each  1,000  liters  of  juice. 

Filtration  is  carried  out  by  means  of  a  copper-lined  Sweetland  press. 
A  3O-in.  wood  plate  and  frame,  open  delivery,  washing  type  press  is 
used  when  greater  capacity  is  necessary.  The  cake  is  thoroughly  washed 
with  hot  water.  The  filter-eel  may  be  recovered  from  the  press  cake  by 
burning  out  the  organic  matter,  m  it  may  be  used  for  the  production  of 
decolorizing  carbon,  as  mentioned  later. 

Precipitation  of  calcium  citrate. — The  filtered  juice  is  a  brilliant, 
light  amber  liquid,  averaging  about  4  per  cent  acid.  It  is  pumped  into 
wooden  tanks  2.4  m.  in  diameter  by  1.5  m.  high,  with  staves  made  of 
Oregon  pine  7.6  cm.  thick.  Each  tank  is  equipped  with  copper  heating 
coil  and  mechanical  agitator.  A  charge  consists  of  about  3,700  liters  of 
juice,  and  from  a  laboratory  assay  the  amount  of  calcium  required  to 
precipitate  the  citric  acid  is  calculated.  In  practice,  sufficient  hydrated 
lime  of  high  purity  is  added  to  precipitate  90  per  cent  of  the  total  acid, 
calculated  as  citric.  Sufficient  calcium  carbonate  is  then  added  to  neu- 
tralize the  remaining  10  per  cent  of  acid,  and  an  excess  of  7  kg.  of  calcium 
carbonate  is  added. 

Experience  has  shown  that  if  the  juice  is  completely  neutralized  with 
calcium  hydroxide,  dark-colored  compounds  are  formed.  These  com- 
pounds are  difficult,  if  not  impossible  to  wash  out,  and  if  not  removed 
cause  the  liquor  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  the  citrate  to  be  very 
dark  colored.  This  increases  the  difficulty  of  securing  satisfactory 
crystals. 

It  has  also  been  shown  that,  however  great  the  excess  of  calcium 
carbonate  added  to  the  juice,  there  is  always  a  small  residual  acidity, 
varying  from  0.08  to  0.20  per  cent,  depending  on  the  acidity  of  the 
original  juice. 

The  resistance  to  corrosion  of  the  copper  coils  placed  in  these  tanks 
is  noteworthy.  For  two  years  the  tanks  containing  these  coils  were  used 
for  decomposing  the  citrate  as  well  as  precipitating  it  from  the  juice. 
The  coils  were  therefore  subjected  to  the  action  of  liquors  containing  10 
to  20  per  cent  of  citric  acid  and  about  0.2  per  cent  of  sulphuric  acid  for 
a  great  many  days.  During  the  last  two  years  the  tanks  were  used  only 
for  precipitating  citrate.  Apparently  the  coils  were  worn  thin  by  the 
swirling  calcium  citrate,  rather  than  by  reaction  between  the  copper  and 
the  acids. 

The  precipitated  citrate  is  pumped  into  an  iron  plate-and-frame  filter 
press  and  thoroughly  washed  with  water  at  as  near  ioo°C.  as  possible 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,   VOL.   VI.    PART  II,    PLATE  VII. 


(From  an  old  drawing  in  La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

AN  ORANGE  GROVE  IN  JAMAICA. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 


AN  ORANGE  GROVE   IN  JAMAICA. 


CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE  251 

and  then  partly  dried  by  blowing  air  through  the  cake.  The  citrate  is 
dumped  by  way  of  a  convenient  chute  directly  into  one  of  a  series  of 
pine  tanks  exactly  like  those  used  for  precipitating  the  citrate,  except  that 
it  has  no  heating  coil. 

Since  the  foregoing  process  was  installed  the  Oliver  continuous  filters 
have  been  used  for  filtering  the  citrate  and  calcium  sulphate  precipitates. 

Decomposition  of  citrate. — The  citrate  is  suspended  in  dilute  liquor 
obtained  in  washing  the  previous  batch  of  gypsum  and  the  amount  of 
66°  Be.  sulphuric  acid  needed  for  the  complete  decomposition  is  added. 
The  accuracy  of  this  reaction  is  checked  by  filtering  off  a  sample  of  the 
acid  liquor,  after  thorough  agitation  for  30  minutes,  and  adding  about 
5  cc.  of  45  per  cent  CaCl2  solution  to  an  equal  volume  of  the  filtered 
liquor.  A  faint  precipitate  of  calcium  sulphate  should  be  noticeable  after 
holding  in  the  steam  bath  5  minutes,  indicating  an  excess  of  not  more 
than  0.2  per  cent  sulphuric  acid. 

If  too  much  sulphuric  acid  has  been  added  it  is  necessary  to  add  cal- 
cium citrate,  the  amount  of  which  is  determined  by  titration  of  a  lo-c.c. 
sample,  using  phenolphthalein.  A  solution  is  then  made  up  which  is 
exactly  10  c.c.  in  volume  and  10  per  cent  acid  (as  citric)  in  strength.  As 
the  liquor  always  contains  over  10  per  cent  citric  acid,  this  is  a  simple 
dilution.  A  standard  solution  is  made  containing  10  per  cent  citric  acid, 
with  a  drop  or  two  of  ferric  chloride  solution  added  to  give  a  depth  of 
color  equal  to  that  of  the  solution  to  be  tested.  This  is  for  the  purpose 
of  overcoming  the  difficulty  in  comparing  depths  of  color  which  are  not 
the  same  shade,  and  in  practice  has  been  very  successful.  Three  drops 
of  a  i  :iooo  solution  of  thymolsulphonephthalein  and  1.5  c.c.  0.5  N  so- 
dium hydroxide  are  added  to  each  solution.  The  pure  citric  acid  solution 
assumes  a  characteristic  yellow  tint,  while  the  sample  containing  sulphuric 
acid  continues  to  display  the  red  color  due  to  the  more  highly  ionized 
mineral  acid.  The  latter  is  titrated  with  0.5  N  sodium  hydroxide  until 
the  color  matches  that  of  the  standard.  The  number  of  c.c.  of  0.5  N 
alkali  used  in  the  last  titration  measures  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid,  and 
hence  the  amount  of  calcium  citrate  which  will  be  decomposed  by  it.  This 
method  has  been  found  very  practical  in  factory  control  work. 

The  decomposition  of  the  citrate  is  usually  completed  in  about  three 
hours.  The  precipitated  calcium  sulphate  is  allowed  to  settle  by  gravity 
and  the  acid  liquor  drawn  off.  The  precipitate  is  washed  free  from  acid 
by  decantation  by  the  countercurrent  principle,  using  a  five-step  cycle. 
The  calcium  sulphate  residue  is  sun-dried  and  sold  as  fertilizer. 

The  acid  liquor  thus  obtained  is  a  light-amber  solution  containing 
about  12  to  15  per  cent  acid.  It  has  a  density  of  about  5°  to  6°  Be.,  con- 


252  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

tains  about  0.12  per  cent  sulphuric  acid,  and  has  a  purity  of  about  95  to 
98  per  cent. 

Per  cent  citric  acid 
Purity  = 

Per  cent  total  acid  as  citric 

Concentration  of  liquors. — The  acid  liquor  from  the  decomposition  of 
citrate  is  run  into  lead-lined  open  evaporators  of  about  17,000  liters 
capacity,  equipped  with  lead  steam  coils,  and  in  these  evaporators  the 
liquor  is  concentrated  to  20°  to  25°  Be.  The  liquor  is  kept  at  incipient 
boiling  and  never  boiled  hard.  Agitation  is  maintained  by  air  jets. 

The  concentration  is  completed  in  lead-lined  vacuum  pans  of  about 
7,000  liters  capacity.  The  concentrated  liquor  is  delivered  to  the  lead- 
lined  crystallizers  at  37°  to  38°  Be.  In  three  to  five  days  a  good  crop 
of  crystals  is  set,  and  the  mother-liquor  is  drawn  off  and  reboiled  to  pro- 
duce another  crop.  The  crystals  are  washed  with  cold  water  in  a  basket 
centrifugal.  These  centrifugals  are  standard  3O-in.  Weston  type  ma- 
chines with  bronze  baskets.  The  inner  lining  is  perforated  sheet  monel 
metal.  The  curbs  are  lined  with  lead. 

The  crude  crystals  are  usually  made  by  the  granulation  process  in 
which  the  crystallizing  liquor  is  kept  in  gentle  agitation.  A  heavy  crop 
of  small  crystals  is  thus  produced. 

The  crude  crystals  are  dissolved  in  warm  water  in  a  lead-lined  tank 
by  dumping  them  in  a  perforated  lead  basket  suspended  at  the  top  of  the 
tank,  utilizing  the  well-known  principle  of  the  heavy  solution  going  to 
the  bottom  while  the  most  dilute  solution  is  always  at  the  surface  where 
the  crystals  are  continually  dissolved. 

Purification  of  crude  acid. — The  solution  of  crude  acid  is  subjected 
to  laboratory  tests  and  purifying  treatment  prescribed  and  carried  out 
under  strict  laboratory  control. 

The  impurities  to  be  removed  are  mainly:  (i)  organic  color,  (2) 
lead,  (3)  copper,  tin,  and  antimony,  (4)  iron  and  nickel,  (5)  sulphuric 
acid  and  (6)  calcium  sulphate.  All  of  these,  except  organic  color,  would 
appear  in  the  ash  on  incineration,  and  their  elimination  automatically 
brings  the  ash  to  a  negligible  quantity. 

Organic  color. —  Organic  coloring  [matters  are  present  in  the  raw 
juice,  others  are  formed  on  heating  and  remain  in  the  filtered  juice,  and 
to  some  extent  are  held  by  the  citrate  throughout  the  washing,  and 
appear  in  the  liquors.  Some  color  is  added  by  decomposition  of  the 
citric  acid  and  organic  impurities  on  heating  in  the  evaporators.  If  not 
removed  this  color  appears  in  the  final  crystals,  bringing  them  below 
standard  as  to  color  and  translucency. 


CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE  253 

In  early  work  bone-black  was  used,  but  it  had  to  be  thoroughly 
washed  with  hydrochloric  acid  to  remove  the  calcium  phosphate,  and 
then  with  water  to  remove  the  acid  and  soluble  salts.  This  was  expen- 
sive and  laborious.  Experiments  with  a  number  of  decolorizing  car- 
bons soon  showed  the  product  known  as  filtchar  56  to  be  well  suited  to 
the  work,  and  as  compared  with  the  bone-black  to  be  cheaper  in  first 
cost  and  in  operating  cost.  Since  then  another  carbon  has  been  applied 
very  successfully. 

Filtchar  is  added  to  the  liquor  in  the  proportion  of  about  i  to  2  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  liquor,  about  6,000  to  7,000  kilos  of  liquor 
being  treated  in  a  batch.  The  liquor  is  slowly  warmed  to  about  70°  C. 
Other  corrective  treatments  are  given  at  the  same  time.  The  comple- 
tion of  the  decolorization  is  tested  by  filtering  a  sample  of  the  liquor, 
treating  a  portion  of  the  filtered  liquor  with  more  filtchar,  heating  and 
filtering,  and  comparing  the  color  of  the  two  filtrates.  More  filtchar  is 
added  or  not,  as  indicated  by  this  test.  The  final  decolorized  filtrate  is 
a  very  pale-straw  color  in  layers  several  inches  deep,  and  appears  prac- 
tically water- white  when  seen  through  a  Y^ -inch  test  tube. 

Lead. — A  part  of  the  lead  is  removed  as  sulphate  by  the  sulphuric 
acid,  a  small  amount  of  which  is  normally  present  in  this  liquor.  The 
remainder  of  the  lead  is  removed  by  precipitation  as  lead  sulphide. 

Copper,  tin,  and  antimony. — Copper  and  tin  are  taken  up  from  pipe 
lines,  pumps,  and  valves,  and  antimony  from  the  lead  pipe  lines  and  con- 
tainers, which  are  alloyed  with  2  to  4  per  cent  of  antimony  for  stiffen- 
ing. All  three  metals  are  precipitated  as  sulphides  at  the  same  time  that 
the  lead  is  removed. 

Iron  and  nickel. — Iron  enters  the  process  as  a  slight  impurity  in  the 
filter-eel,  calcium  hydroxide,  calcium  carbonate,  and  sulphuric  acid,  and 
is  dissolved  from  certain  parts  of  the  presses  and  other  machinery  with 
which  the  liquor  comes  into  contact. 

Iron  in  the  ferric  state  imparts  a  dirty  brownish  color  to  the  acid 
crystals.  In  the  ferrous  state  iron  gives  no  noticeable  color,  but  it 
slowly  oxidizes  and  causes  the  crystals  to  become  distinctly  yellow  on 
standing,  even  in  closed  containers.  The  color  due  to  iron  strikes  the 
eye  immediately  and  from  a  commercial  point  of  view  is  one  of  the 
most  undesirable  defects  the  crystals  can  possess. 

Nickel  is  taken  up  from  monel  metal  containers  and  conducting  lines, 
etc.,  and,  though  present  in  small  amounts,  it  imparts  a  brownish  tint  to 
the  crystals.  In  some  cases  there  seems  to  be  deposited  a  very  fine 


254  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

precipitate  of  oxide  of  nickel  which  gives  the  crystals  a  dirty  grayish 
appearance  and  seriously  modifies  their  translucency.  Both  iron  and 
nickel  appear  in  the  ash  and  are  also  for  that  reason  undesirable. 

Both  ferric  iron  and  nickel  form  ferrocyanides  which  are  practically 
insoluble  in  acid  solutions.  In  the  treatment  with  filtchar,  etc.,  the 
liquor  is  constantly  agitated  by  blowing  air  in  at  the  bottom  of  the 
treating  tank.  This  serves  also  to  bring  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  iron 
into  the  ferric  condition  so  that  it  can  be  removed  by  precipitation  as 
ferric  •  ferrocyanide. 

Calcium  ferrocyanide  is  admirably  adapted  to  the  removal  of  iron 
and  nickel,  as  it  is  very  soluble  in  water,  precipitates  both  metals  from 
the  acid  solution,  and  forms  free  citric  acid  and  precipitates  calcium 
sulphate,  without  the  introduction  of  a  new  ion  into  the  solution. 

In  using  the  ferrocyanide  ion  for  the  removal  of  iron  and  nickel,  the 
liquor  to  be  treated  is  sampled,  and  the  sample  filtered  clear.  To  several 
25-c.c.  portions  of  the  clear  nitrate  varying  amounts  of  a  i  per  cent  solu- 
tion of  Ca2Fe(CN)6-i2H2O  are  added,  together  with  about  0.5  gm. 
filtchar  and  the  mixture  is  heated  on  the  steam  bath  for  10  minutes,  or 
just  brought  to  a  boil  on  a  hot  plate,  and  filtered. 

If  difficulty  is  experienced  in  securing  a  clear  filtrate,  a  little  filter-eel, 
which  has  been  washed  perfectly  free  from  iron  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  freed  from  acid  by  washing  with  distilled  water,  may  be  added  before 
heating.  This  is  very  effective  in  holding  the  finely  divided  Prussian 
blue  precipitate. 

To  all  of  the  filtrates  a  drop  of  the  i  per  cent  solution  of  Ca2Fe(CN)6 
is  added.  That  sample  which  shows  the  least  blue  color,  but  in  which 
there  is  nevertheless  a  visible  blue  color,  is  used  as  the  basis  of  calculating 
the  amount  of  Ca2Fe(CN)4  necessary  to  remove  the  iron  and  nickel  from 
the  batch  of  liquor  in  question. 

Care  must  be  taken  that  an  excess  of  calcium  ferrocyanide  is  not 
introduced  into  the  liquor,  as  it  passes  through  the  vacuum  pan  and  into 
the  crystallizers.  These  are  lined  with  monel  metal  and  rapidly  become 
coated  with  a  film  of  nickel  ferrocyanide,  which  appears  in  the  crystals. 
In  practice,  enough  calcium  ferrocyanide  solution  is  added  to  precipitate 
about  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  iron  and  nickel  present,  since  the  5  to  10 
per  cent  left  never  appears  in  the  crystals.  As  these  metals  become  con- 
centrated in  the  mother-liquors  they  are  removed  by  subsequent  treat- 
ment with  the  ferrocyanide. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  other  metals  mentioned,  notably  copper,  also 
form  insoluble  ferrocyanides.  As  calcium  ferrocyanide  is  the  most  ex- 
pensive reagent  used  in  the  treatment,  the  several  steps  naturally  take 


CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE  255 

place  in  the  order  of  the  ascending  costs  of  the  reagents  used :  sulphuric 
acid,  filtchar,  hydrogen  sulphide,  and  calcium  ferrocyanide. 

When  the  tests  with  filtchar,  hydrogen  sulphide  and  calcium  ferro- 
cyanide show  that  the  treatment  is  complete,  the  liquor  is  filter-pressed 
and  sent  to  the  vacuum  pan  for  final  concentration. 

Sulphuric  acid. — At  times  sulphuric  acid  may  accumulate  in  excess 
as  the  liquor  is  concentrated  in  the  vacuum  pan.  If  not  removed,  some  of 
this  sulphuric  acid  may  appear  in  the  finished  crystals,  even  after  thor- 
ough washing  in  the  centrifugal.  When  a  point  is  reached  in  the  final 
boiling  where  the  liquor  has  about  two  or  three  hours  yet  to  remain  in 
the  pan,  a  test  for  free  sulphuric  acid  is  made.  A  sample  of  filtered 
liquor  is  mixed  in  a  test  tube  with  an  equal  volume  of  45  per  cent  calcium 
chloride  solution  and  heated  in  the  steam  bath  for  a  minute  or  two.  If 
more  than  a  slight  precipitate  is  obtained,  an  appropriate  amount  of  cal- 
cium hydroxide  in  the  form  of  a  thin  milk  is  drawn  into  the  pan,  throwing 
down  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  as  calcium  sulphate. 

As  the  vacuum  pan  is  lined  with  lead,  the  liquor  always  takes  up  more 
or  less  of  this  metal  in  the  final  cooking,  and  an  extra  precaution  against 
this  is  taken  by  sucking  into  the  pan  about  20  liters  of  hydrogen  sulphide 
water  at  the  same  time  that  the  milk  of  lime  is  added.  By  the  time  the 
strike  is  withdrawn  the  sulphide  has  had  ample  time  to  precipitate  the 
lead,  and  any  excess  has  been  boiled  off. 

Calcium  sulphate. — Calcium  sulphate  is  always  present  in  greater  or 
less  amount  in  acid  liquor,  and  more  of  it  is  formed  by  the  combined 
treatments  with  sulphuric  acid,  calcium  ferrocyanide,  and  calcium  hy- 
droxide. It -seems  a  fair  assumption  that  these  liquors  are  always  satu- 
rated with  calcium  sulphate,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  there  is,  at  the  end 
of  any  concentration  of  the  liquor,  a  considerable  amount  of  calcium 
sulphate  suspended  as  a  fine  precipitate  in  the  liquor.  This  is  true  of  the 
final  boiling  in  the  vacuum  pan,  which  rapidly  becomes  coated  on  the 
inside  with  a  crust  of  the  precipitated  calcium  sulphate. 

The  liquor  is  filtered  immediately  upon  withdrawal  from  the  pan  to 
remove  the  calcium  sulphate  and  all  other  insoluble  matter.  A  wood 
plate-and-f  rame  filter  press  is  used,  which  is  clothed  not  only  with  usual 
filter  cloth  but  with  heavy  paper  as  well,  to  insure  a  brilliant  filtrate. 

Our  experience  has  shown  that  this  final  filtration  of  the  acid  liquor 
is  probably  the  most  important  single  operation  in  the  production  of  high- 
grade  crystals.  The  precipitate  removed  is  mainly  calcium  sulphate,  but 
there  are  usually  also  some  filtchar,  iron  and  nickel  ferrocyanides,  and 
metallic  sulphides,  with  sometimes  small  amounts  of  lead  and  calcium 
citrates.  All  of  these  precipitates,  if  not  removed,  appear  in  the  crystals 


256  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

and  raise  the  ash  above  the  limit  of  0.5  per  cent.  Proper  filtration  re- 
moves them  completely,  giving  a  brilliantly  light-straw  or  amber-colored 
liquor  of  about  36.6°Be.  at  50° C.  This  yields  a  good  crop  of  clear,  color- 
less crystals  of  pure  citric  acid. 

Carbonised  filter-eel. — If  the  liquor  is  difficult  to  filter,  use  is  made 
of  a  carbonized  filter-eel  made  at  the  filter  plant.  (Patent  on  this  product 
has  been  applied  for  by  the  manufacturers.)  It  was  noted  that  the  raw 
juice  is  clarified  by  filtering  after  boiling  with  filter-eel.  The  press  cake 
from  this  operation  contains  roughly  equal  amounts  of  filter-eel  and 
organic  matter  from  lemon  pulp.  When  heated  in  closed  retorts  to  a 
bright  red  heat  the  organic  matter  is  subjected  to  destructive  distillation, 
and  very  fine  particles  of  carbon  are  deposited  throughout  the  pores  of 
the  filter-eel.  The  carbonized  filter-eel  thus  obtained  is  ground  to  a 
coarse  powder.  It  is  extremely  light  and  porous,  wets  easily,  and  has  a 
high  decolorizing  value  when  applied  to  citric  acid  liquors.  It  is  par- 
ticularly useful,  however,  in  producing  a  porous,  easily  filterable  press 
cake  in  the  clarification  of  liquors  which  are  slimy  or  viscous  and  clog 
the  filter  cloth  rapidly,  or  which  contain  precipitates  so  fine  that  they 
pass  through  the  cloth  and  paper.  The  carbonized  filter-eel  is  far  superior 
to  the  fresh  unused  filter-eel  in  this  respect  and  is  the  best  filter  aid. 

In  using  this  carbonized  filter-eel  a  small  amount  is  added  to  the 
liquor  to  be  filtered  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  it,  and  the  mixture  is 
passed  through  the  filter  press.  If  the  liquor  shows  a  tendency  to  come 
through  cloudy,  the  press  cloths  are  precoated  with  carbonized  filter-eel 
by  mixing  a  few  pounds  with  water  and  passing  this  through  the  filter 
press  just  before  the  liquor  is  sent  through. 

Crystallisation. — The  purified  liquor  is  passed  from  the  filter  presses 
directly  into  the  crystallizers. 

These  are  monel-lined  wooden  tanks,  130  cm.  X  435  cm.  X  20  cm., 
with  a  capacity  of  about  1,150  liters.  Other  crystallizers  of  varnished 
wood,  stoneware,  porcelain,  lead,  and  acid-proof  enamel  were  tried. 
With  wood,  even  with  a  good  varnish,  crystals  stick  to  the  surface,  with 
eventual  trouble  from  chips.  Stoneware  chips  quite  easily  under  the 
blows  necessary  to  remove  the  crystals  and  acid-proof  enamels  are  open 
to  this  same  objection.  Porcelain  is  too  expensive  to  use  in  this  country, 
though  it  is  said  to  be  employed  on  a  large  scale  in  Germany  for  similar 
work.  Lead  is  objectionable  because  of  the  contamination  of  the  crystals. 
Monel  metal  has  been  found  quite  satisfactory,  although  the  liquors 
slowly  take  up  both  nickel  and  copper  from  it.  It  is  hard  and  tough, 
the  crystals  are  easily  removed  from  it,  and  it  is  easy  to  keep  clean  and 
bright. 


CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURE  257 

Where  crystals  are  desired,  the  liquor  is  kept  perfectly  still  for  from 
three  to  five  days,  depending  on  the  temperature  of  the  surrounding 
atmosphere. 

When  granular  acid  (small  crystals)  is  wanted,  the  liquor  is  kept 
in  constant  motion  by  a  small  air  jet  or  mechanical  agitator. 

After  crystallization  is  complete  the  liquor  is  drawn  off  and  re- 
cooked  in  the  vacuum  pan,  and  refiltered.  Further  crops  of  crystals  are 
removed  as  long  as  a  satisfactory  product  is  obtained. 

In  ordinary  weather  the  acid  crystals  are  simply  washed  in  a  basket 
centrifugal,  and  spread  on  a  clean  mixing  floor  to  evaporate  surface 
moisture.  They  are  then  graded  for  size  by  means  of  a  monel  metal 
screen,  and  packed  for  shipment.  In  wet  weather  it  is  necessary  to  use 
artificial  means  of  drying  and  for  this  purpose  a  vacuum  shelf  dryer  has 
been  used. 

Treatment  of  old  liquor. — No  citric  acid  liquor  is  ever  discarded. 
When  white  liquors  no  longer  yield  crystals  of  U.S. P.  quality,  these 
liquors  are  classed  as  brown,  and  the  crystals  taken  from  them  are  dis- 
solved and  purified  as  indicated  above.  When  brown  liquors  fail  to 
yield  a  sufficient  crop  of  crude  crystals  they  are  returned  to  the  neutraliz- 
ing tanks,  diluted,  and  treated  like  fresh  juice,  recovering  the  acid  as 
citrate  of  lime,  which  passes  again  into  the  regular  process. 

Quality  of  product. — The  standard  of  purity  for  U.S.P.  citric  acid  is 
quite  high  ( United  States  Pharmacopeia,  Vol.  IX,  No.  9)  but  the  rigid 
laboratory  control  established  when  the  first  acid  was  produced  has  kept 
this  factory  free  from  complaints  on  the  score  of  quality. 

Use  of  metric  system. — It  may  be  interesting  to  note  that  from  the 
start  of  actual  production  of  citric  acid,  the  metric  system  has  been  in 
use  throughout  the  factory.  Tanks  are  calibrated  in  liters  per  centimeter 
of  depth,  and  the  various  chemicals  are  weighed  in  kilograms.  There 
has  been  no  difficulty  in  teaching  ordinary  laborers  to  use  meter  sticks 
and  metric  scales,  and  the  saving  in  calculation  in  the  laboratory  has  been 
enormous. 

THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  SAN  DIEGO  DISTRICT 

The  San  Diego  district  includes  National  City  and  San  Diego.  Its 
chief  products  are  calcium  citrate,  lemon  oil,  coronet  (lemon)  flavoring 
extract,  California  melade  (grapefruit  juice),  and  citrus  washing  powder. 

THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  SAN  BERNARDINO  DISTRICT 

The  San  Bernardino  district  has  its  by-product  industry  located  prin- 
cipally in  four  cities,  namely :  Corona,  Ontario,  Redlands,  and  Riverside. 


258  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  San  Bernardino  district  produces  citric  acid,  dried  orange  peel, 
lemon  juice.  Formerly  orange  wine  was  made. 

THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  LOS  ANGELES  DISTRICT 

The  section  of  the  citrus  by-product  industry  centered  about  Los 
Angeles  contains  the  following  cities  in  which  active  commercial  inter- 
ests are  located :  On  the  north,  Sa"n  Gabriel,  Alhambra,  Pasadena,  Alta- 
dena,  Lamanda  Park,  and  Monrovia,  on  the  northeast,  Pomona  and 
Claremont,  on  the  southeast,  Anaheim,  Placentia,  and  Santa  Ana.  The 
principal  products  of  this  district  considering  the  number  of  firms  manu- 
facturing as  a  criterion  are:  (i)  marmalade  and  jelly,  (2)  juices,  (3) 
peel,  (4)  canned  oranges,  (5)  calcium  citrate,  (6)  wines  and  cordials 
(now  discontinued).  Miscellaneous  products  include  a  face  cream,  a 
shampoo,  and  a  dentrifice. 

FLORIDA 

It  was  about  the  year  1884  that  fair  sized  shipments  of  oranges  began 
to  move  out  of  Florida.  At  the  present  time  Polk  County  produces  more 
citrus  fruit  than  any  other  county  in  the  state.  Other  large  centralized 
fruit  areas  may  be  found  (i)  north  of  Polk  County  in  Lake  and  Orange 
counties,  (2)  on  the  west  coast  in  Pinellas  and  Manatee  counties,  and 
(3)  on  the  east  coast  along  the  Indian  River  in  Volusia  Brevard,  and  St. 
Lucie  counties.  Many  smaller  citrus  regions  are  found  in  various  locali- 
ties throughout  the  central  and  southern  part  of  the  state.1 

Every  year  the  citrus  fruit  growers  of  Florida  as  elsewhere  suffer  a 
considerable  loss  on  account  of  the  cull  fruits  which  are  not  suitable  for 
shipping.  This  loss  may  amount  to  as  much  as  10  per  cent  of  the  fruit 
coming  into  a  packing-house.2  The  chief  reasons  for  the  existence  of 
culls  are  superficial  defects  which  in  no  way  injure  the  value  of  the 
fruit  for  immediate  consumption  or  for  preservation.  Since  the  local 
market  cannot  take  care  of  this  large  amount  of  cull  fruit,  it  is  desirable 
there  also  to  find  methods  of  preserving  or  otherwise  utilizing  it. 

The  principal  citrus  fruits  grown  in  Florida  are  oranges  and  grape- 
fruit. In  1909  practically  all  the  lemons  and  74  per  cent  of  the  oranges 
of  the  United  States  were  grown  in  California  while  nearly  all  the 
grapefruit  over  a  million  boxes  was  grown  in  Florida. 

The  manufacture  of  by-products  in  Florida  is  virtually  confined  to 
the  making  of  marmalade  and  the  preservation  of  grapefruit  juice.  Can- 
ning of  grapefruit  and  bottling  of  grapefruit  juice  is  done  on  a  much 
larger  scale  than  in  California. 

JC.  R.  Swinson  and  W.  C.  Funk,  "Economic  Aspects  of  Citrus-Fruit  Growing 
in  Polk  County,  Fla.,"  U.  S.  D.  A.  Dept.  Bull.  No.  1435  (1926). 

^Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  No.  135  (1917),  p.  131. 


MEXICO  259 

MEXICO 

Oranges  and  bananas  are  the  most  important  fruits  grown  in  Mexico. 
In  1907,  83,814,000  Ib.  of  oranges  were  produced.  Over  90  per  cent  of 
these  were  shipped  to  the  United  States  and  Canada.  During  the  fiscal 
year  ending  June  30,  1914,  Mexico  exported  to  the  United  States  6,194 
Ib.  citrate  of  lime,  and  99  Ib.  oil  of  lime.  Citrus  fruit  production  in 
Mexico  is  far  below  the  potential  output.  For  three  years  previous  to 
1926  no  oranges  have  been  shipped  to  Canada  from  the  Montomorelos 
district  of  the  state  of  Tomaulipas.  It  was  planned  to  renew  shipments 
beginning  December,  1926.  Refrigeration  facilities  have  been  installed 
in  a  number  of  steamers  entering  Tampico,  and  oranges  will  be  shipped 
to  Montreal  via  New  York. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XII 

ANONYMOUS. 

California  Pure  Food  and  Drugs  Act;  Food  Sanitation  Act;  Cold  Stor- 
age Act  with  Rules  and  Regulations  Sacramento:  California  State 
Printing  Office,  1916. 

"Big  Orange  Peel  Order,"  Los  Angeles  Times  (January  4,  1917). 

"Making  Citrus  Products  in  This  City,"  Pasadena  Star-News  (April  13, 
1917). 

CHACE,  EDWARD  M. 

Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
Bulletin  No.  160. 

McDERMOxr,  F.  ALEX. 

"The  Utilization  of  Cull  Citrus  Fruits  in  Florida,"  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  (Gainesville,  Florida)  Bulletin  No.  135  (April,  1917). 
Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  VIII  (1916),  136. 

POWELL,  G.  H. 

Report  of  the  Secretary  and  Manager  of  the  Citrus  Protective  League 

for  Year  ending  December,  51,  ipu.    Los  Angeles. 
Report  of  the  Secretary  and  Manager  of  the  Citrus  Protective  League 
for  Seven  Months  ending  July  JJ,  1912  (Circular  No.  8). 

POWELL,  G.  H.,  and  WALLSCHLAEGER,  F.  O. 

"The  California  Lemon  Industry,"  Citrus  Protective  League  of  Cali- 
fornia Bulletin  No.  p  (January,  1913).  Los  Angeles. 

RUDDIMAN,  H.  D. 

"Statistics  of  Fruits  in  Principal  Countries,"  United  States  Department 
of  Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  483  (February  14,  1917). 

WALLSCHLAEGER,  F.  O. 

"The  World's  Production  and  Commerce  in  Citrus  Fruits  and  Their 
By-Products,"  Citrus  Protective  League  of  California  Bulletin  No.  n 
(April  15,  1914).  Los  Angeles. 


260  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

WALKER. 

Florida  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  135. 

WILL,  R.  T. 

"Some  Phases  of  the  Citrus  By-Product  Industry  in  California,"  Journal 
of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chemistry,  VIII,  No.  I  (January, 
1916),  78. 

WILSON,  C.  P. 

"The  Manufacture  of  Citric  Acid  from  Lemons,"  Journal  of  Industrial 
and  Engineering  Chemistry,  XIII,  No.  6  (June,  1921),  554. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

THE  INDUSTRY  IN  THE  WEST  INDIES  AND 
NEIGHBORING  ISLANDS 

BRITISH  WEST  INDIES 

Of  the  citrus  by-products  imported  into  the  United  States  during  the 
year  ending  June  30,  1914,  483,167  Ib.  of  citrate  of  lime,  9,537  lb.  oil 
of  lime,  29,566  lb.  oil  of  orange,  and  39.2  per  cent  of  the  lemon,  lime, 
and  sour  orange  juice  were  received  from  the  British  West  Indies.  The 
orange  oil  came  from  Jamaica,  the  only  place  where  it  is  produced. 

ISLAND  STATISTICS 

Bahamas. — Small  quantities  of  grapefruit  and  oranges  are  exported 
principally  to  the  United  States.  By-products  are  likewise  made  in 
small  quantities. 

Jamaica. — Exports  of  grapefruit  during  the  four  years  1909-12 
averaged  $92,170  annually,  of  oranges  $207,000,  and  of  lime  juice  $19,- 
258.  During  the  year  ending  June  30,  1914,  Jamaica  exported  to  the 
United  States  16.5  lb.  oil  of  lime,  29,032  lb.  oil  of  orange,  and  4.2  per 
cent  of  the  lemon,  lime,  and  sour  orange  juice. 

Leeward  Islands. — The  cultivation  of  limes  is  the  principal  fruit 
industry  of  the  islands  of  this  group,  especially  of  Dominica,  where  the 
industry  has  attained  its  highest  development.  During  the  five  years 
1909-13  the  lime  crop  of  Dominica  averaged  354,000  barrels  yearly.  The 
flour  barrel  used  for  measuring  limes  will  average  about  160  lb.  of 
fruit.  Calculated  on  this  basis  the  average  annual  production  was  56,- 
640,000  lb.  The  average  annual  value  of  exports  of  limes  and  lime 
products  during  the  years  1911-13  was  $508,090.  There  were  also  ex- 
ported from  Dominica  small  quantities  of  oranges  and  orange  oil.  The 
lime  crop  for  1918-22,  calculated  in  barrels  (capacity  4.55  cubic  feet)  is 
recorded  below:1 

Barrels 

IQiS 3l8,OOO 

1919 402,000 

1920 369,OOO 

1921    516,000 

1922 400,000 

^Colonial  Report  No.  1195,  Leeward  Islands,  1922-23,  p.  15. 

261 


262  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

In  the  production  of  lime  oil  Montserrat  ranks  next  to  Dominica1  and 
Antigua  produces  a  smaller  amount. 

St.  Lucia. — The  cultivation  of  limes  is  increasing  and  seems  likely  to 
assume  an  important  place  in  the  economics  of  the  island.  Exports  of 
limes  and  lime  products  increased  from  $1,411  in  1911  to  $5,280  in 
1912  and  $15,220  in  1913.  The  production  of  lime  oil,  however,  is  less 
than  that  of  Dominica  and  Montserrat. 

Trinidad  and  Tobago. — The  area  used  in  the  cultivation  of  limes  and 
oranges  in  1913-14  was  1,123  acres.  The  value  of  fruit  exported  has 
increased  from  $3,908  in  1905  to  $57,396  in  1914.  The  lime  oil  industry 
here  as  in  St.  Lucia  is  not  as  great  as  that  of  Dominica  and  Montserrat. 
During  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1914,  Trinidad  exported  to  the 
United  States  99  Ib.  lime  oil,  and  0.9  per  cent  of  the  lemon,  lime,  and 
sour  orange  juice  imported  into  the  United  States. 

JAMAICAN  ORANGE  OIL 

The  earthquake  that  in  1908  laid  Messina  in  ruins,  and  caused  a  set- 
back to  the  Sicilian  production  of  essential  oils,  gave  the  first  important 
impetus  to  the  new  orange  oil  industry  in  Jamaica.  Until  this  time 
Sicily  and  southern  Italy  had  been  the  chief,  or  practically  the  only 
sources  of  supply  of  the  oils  of  orange  and  lemon.  - 

The  essential  oils  from  Italy  and  Sicily  were  the  standard  in  the 
world's  market  for  many  years.  The  manufacturer  or  syndicate  of 
growers  sold  under  well-known  brands,  the  quality  of  the  shipments 
being  guaranteed  by  some  analytical  chemist.  Until  the  loss  through  the 
Messina  earthquake  of  large  stocks  of  the  oil,  there  was  practically  no 
sale  for  the  West  Indian  product.  There  is  quite  a  difference  between  the 
chemical  constituents  of  the  Jamaican  and  the  standard  Sicilian  oil,  and 
buyers  were  disinclined  to  change  and  thus  risk  altering  the  flavor  or 
fragrance  of  their  products.  The  adequacy  of  supply  of  the  oil  to  which 
they  were  accustomed  also  militated  against  the  Jamaican  oils  finding  a 
market,  except  in  small  quantities  at  lower  prices.  Small  quantities  had 
thus  been  sold  at  prices  as  low  as  75  cents  per  pound,  which  was  less 
than  the  cost  of  production. 

The  rise  in  price  of  orange  oil  marked  an  opportunity  for  the  orange 
producers  of  Jamaica  who  at  the  time  were  suffering  from  difficulties  in 
marketing  the  crop  under  the  high  tariff  on  citrus  fruits  in  the  United 
States  and  the  distance  which  separates  Jamaica  from  the  other  worth- 
while markets  for  so  perishable  and  bulky  a  fruit. 

Until  this  time,  the  production  of  oil  from  oranges  had  been  largely 
experimental,  and  the  experiments  had  "been  sufficient  to  indicate  that 

'See  Table  XL. 


JAMAICAN  ORANGE  OIL  263 

with  increased  prices,  the  local  glut  in  production  of  the  fruit  and  the 
abundance  of  cheap  labor,  the  oil  could  be  furnished  in  large  quantities 
and  a  worth-while  trade  built  up  as  soon  as  prejudice  against  a  new 
source  of  supply  had  been  overcome. 

Method  of  production. — There  is  practically  but  one  method  in  vogue 
for  the  production  of  orange  oil  in  Jamaica.  The  machine  used  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  employed  in  Sicily.  It  consists  of  a  copper  disk 
13  to  14  in.  in  diameter  made  of  i6-oz.  copper.  In  some  cases  a  lighter 
copper  is  used.  When  the  cage  is  turned  over  and  stiffened  with  wire, 
the  bottom  of  the  bowl  is  fitted  with  a  funnel  ^  in.  in  diameter  and  5  to 
6  in.  long  with  the  bottom  end  closed.  This  copper  disk  is  punched  with 
a  series  of  fine  holes  in  concentric  circles  about  •£%  in.  apart.  Copper 
tacks  l/2-y&  in.  in  length  are  passed  into  the  holes  and  soldered  down 
with  the  heads  flushed  and  the  points  protruding  full  length  on  the  in- 
side of  the  disk.  The  correct  name  for  these  machines  as  used  in  Sicily 
is  ecuelle  ;  in  Jamaica  they  are  known  as  "rinders."  These  were  formerly 
imported  from  London,  but  the  native  tinsmith  has  proved  adept  at 
making  them.  They  now  cost  from  I2s.  to  15^.  ($2.92  to  $3.65)  each, 
according  to  the  gauge  of  copper  used.  A  box  is  supplied  with  each 
machine  provided  with  a  wooden  frame  extension  on  which  the  under 
side  of  the  bowl  rests,  the  box  itself  providing  a  seat  for  the  woman 
using  the  machine  as  well  as  affording  a  receptacle  for  the  bottles  of  oil. 
The  tendency  has  been  to  make  the  points  too  long,  too  sharp,  and  un- 
even. The  "rinder"  is  held  between  the  knees  of  the  operator,  seated, 
and  with  the  open  palm  of  the  hand,  the  orange  is  rolled  lightly  over 
the  points  of  the  tacks.  These  prick  the  oil-bearing  cells  of  the  rind, 
or  skin,  of  the  orange,  the  oil  oozing  out  and  dripping  down  into  the 
funnel-spout.  The  orange  is  ordinarily  rolled  until  no  further  oil 
exudes.  When  the  funnel  is  filled,  the  oil  is  poured  through  a  piece  of 
cloth  into  ordinary  bottles,  holding  a  quart  or  less.  At  this  stage  of  the 
process,  the  oil  is  frequently  found  to  contain  some  orange  juice,  and  at 
times  a  mucilage.  These  foreign  substances  sometimes  make  it  necessary 
to  allow  the  oil  to  settle.  Thereafter  it  is  carefully  drawn  off  and  filtered 
into  copper  pots  or  pans,  lined  with  pure  tin,  or  occasionally  into  tin 
receptacles,  and  soldered.  The  rinding,  though  a  simple  operation,  re- 
quires a  certain  care  and  skill.  The  length  and  evenness  of  the  tacks 
in  the  rinder  are  important  factors  for  the  extraction  of  the  oil  without 
great  waste.  The  tacks  should  prick  the  orange  skin  only.  If  they  are 
uneven  or  too  long  and  sharp,  either  all  of  the  orange  oil  will  not  be 
extracted  without  increased  labor,  or  the  orange  juice  will  ooze  through 
and  make  extra  filtering  necessary,  with  its  attendant  waste. 


264  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

Several  attempts  have  been  made  in  the  past  to  introduce  machinery 
to  supplant  the  simple  rinder  now  in  use.  These  have  met  with  but  little 
success,  as  the  rinding  in  Jamaica  is  done  usually  by  women  or  children 
who  work  for  small  wages. 

Very  little  oil  can  be  taken  from  the  skin  of  each  orange  so  that  the 
labor  necessary  to  get  even  a  pound  of  the  oil  is  very  considerable,  and 
the  quantity  of  oranges  consumed  in  the  process  is  very  high.  The  trees 
are  scattered,  and  so  the  gatherers,  mostly  girls  and  young  boys,  are  sent 
out  into  the  properties  to  gather  the  fruit  and  collect  the  oil  on  the  spot. 
They  soon  get  very  expert.  By  this  method,  they  only  have  to  carry  the 
oil  to  the  manufacturers,  the  fruit  being  left  on  the  ground. 

In  Jamaica,  the  oranges  are  not  cultivated  in  groves  as  in  Sicily  and 
in  the  citrus  growing  districts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  trees  are 
scattered  over  the  country  in  pastures  and  on  hillsides.  The  orange  oil 
is  collected  by  gangs  of  girls  and  boys.  The  boys  shake  the  oranges 
down  and  the  girls  sit  below  the  trees  and  do  the  rinding.  They  can 
eat  as  many  oranges  as  they  like,  of  course,  and  after  the  rinding,  the 
rest  of  the  oranges  are  generally  flung  away,  the  cattle  and  pigs  feeding 
upon  them  to  a  certain  extent. 

The  laborers  in  Jamaica  are  paid  from  30  to  60  cents  "a  bottle,"  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  oranges  available  within  certain  limits  of  dis- 
tance. The  picking  is  done  in  the  early  hours  of  the  day,  and  the  rinding 
should  be  done  immediately  in  order  to  get  the  greatest  quantity  of  best- 
colored  oil.  The  fruit  should  be  picked  when  full  grown,  but  not  entirely 
ripe,  as  in  the  latter  condition  the  oil  has  a  deeper  color  and  brings  less 
price.  If  the  picking  and  rinding  is  done  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  the 
yield  is  less  than  when  done  at  a  lower  temperature. 

A  local  dealer  states  that  500  oranges  will  yield  approximately  I  lb., 
2  oz.  of  crude  oil,  or  I  lb.  filtered,  and  that  it  takes  eight  hours  to  pro- 
duce i  lb.  of  crude  oil.  The  quantity  of  oil  obtainable  depends  upon  the 
class  and  condition  of  the  fruit.  Oranges  grown  in  a  cool  section  of  the 
island  will  yield  more  oil  than  the  same  quantity  of  fruit  grown  in  a 
warm  one. 

Further  costs  and  charges  after  rinding  are  those  of  collecting  the  oil 
from  the  different  districts,  its  transportation  to  the  seaports,  the  cost  of 
the  copper-tin-lined  containers  in  which  it  is  shipped  and  the  steamship 
freight. 

An  unfortunate  feature  of  the  orange  oil  industry  in  Jamaica  has 
been  that,  owing  to  the  comparatively  high  prices  offered,  the  oil  is  often 
adulterated  with  turpentine,  kerosene  oil,  or  cottonseed  oil,  or  other  fats. 
Such  adulteration,  however,  can  usually  be  detected  by  experienced 


JAMAICAN  ORANGE  OIL  265 

dealers,  and  a  campaign  has  been  inaugurated  by  the  island  authorities 
to  stop  the  dishonest  practice,  and  this  is  now  reported  to  be  in  abeyance. 
If  the  adulterant  is  kerosene,  it  can  usually  be  detected  by  smell  immedi- 
ately after  removing  the  cork  from  the  bottle.  An  effective  method 
recommended  is  to  "pour  some  of  the  oil  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  rub 
vigorously  with  both  hands  and  then  smell."  The  use  of  the  polariscope 
for  testing  is  advisable,  and  a  hydrometer  can  also  be  used,  but  it  is 
doubtful  whether  an  accurate  conclusion  can  be  arrived  at  on  the  basis 
of  specific  gravity  since  a  certain  amount  of  turpentine  can  be  added  to 
the  oil  without  density  being  greatly  altered. 

Method  of  shipment. — In  the  shipment  of  the  oil  to  foreign  markets, 
it  should  be  protected  from  light  and  air,  and  it  cannot  be  profitably  put 
in  tins  or  iron  containers,  nor  in  glass  due  to  heavy  freights  and  risk  of 
breakage.  The  best,  and  now  the  most  usual,  practice  is  to  pack  the  oil 
in  specially  made  copper  vessels,  the  inner  surface  of  which  has  been 
carefully  coated  with  tin. 

At  first,  the  oil  was  shipped  from  Jamaica  in  bottles,  sometimes  in 
demijohns,  but  this  did  not  prove  satisfactory.  It  made  the  freight  ex- 
pensive, the  bottles  were  often  broken,  and  the  oil  was  apt  to  be  injured 
and  become  cloudy  from  exposure  to  light. 

The  copper  containers  now  used  for  the  oil  are  of  two  shapes.  The 
American  ones  are  square  like  a  kerosene  tin.  They  are  made  of  thin 
sheet  copper  the  inside  of  which  is  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  black  tin. 
They  have  a  capacity  of  25  lb.,  and  a  small  funnel  aperture  for  filling. 
When  filled  this  aperture  is  corked  and  covered  with  a  thin  disk  of  copper. 

The  other  package  is  the  Sicilian  style.  It  has  a  round  body  with  a 
half-round  top  and  bottom.  The  sides  and  bottom  are  dovetailed  together 
and  brazed,  forming  one  piece ;  this  is  carefully  tin-coated  inside.  The 
top  is  fitted  and  joined  with  a  heavy  band  of  solder.  The  top  is  also 
fitted  with  a  small  funnel  piece,  and  is  closed  and  soldered  like  the 
American  container.  It  is  made  to  contain  25  lb.  of  oil,  and  the  con- 
tainers are  packed  two  or  four  to  the  case.  Occasionally  Sicilian  coppers 
are  imported  in  the  12^  lb.  size.  The  Sicilian  coppers  are  considered 
better,  stronger,  and  capable  of  withstanding  rougher  handling  than  the 
American  square  receptacles. 

Testing  and  shipping  by  buyers  and  shippers. — The  greatest  care 
should  be  exercised  before  shipment  to  see  that  each  bottle  is  filled  with 
nothing  but  absolutely  pure  oil,  and  as  a  matter  of  fact  the  oil  is  gen- 
erally filtered  and  tested  and  retested  before  being  exported. 

One  shipper  states  that  it  is  sought  to  have  the  product  conform  to 
the  requirements  of  the  United  States  Pharmacopoeia  which  provides 


266 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


that  the  specific  gravity  should  be  between  .842  and  .846  and  the  optical 
rotation  not  below  95°. 

Costs. — The  sale  price  depends  upon  the  combined  demand  from  the 
consuming  countries,  principally  the  United  States  and  the  United  King- 
dom, and  upon  the  available  supply  from  the  sources  of  production,  prin- 
cipally Sicily  and  Jamaica. 

Several  years  ago,  a  shortage  in  the  American  orange  crop  made  it 
highly  profitable  to  ship  Jamaica  oranges  to  the  United  States,  despite 
the  high  import  duty.  Due  to  the  shipment  of  the  fruit  itself  in  large 
quantities,  the  oil  production  fell  off,  and  it  became  practically  impossible 
to  secure  orange  oil  from  Jamaica. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  is  an  article,  of  which  the  production  may 
exceed  the  demand,  and  when  the  surplus  fails  to  find  buyers  it  must  be 
held  over  till  the  following  season.  This  happened  a  few  years  ago,  and 
resulted  virtually  in  the  suspension  of  production  for  about  twelve 
months. 

During  1916  wholesale  prices  realized  in  New  York,  duty  paid,  for 
Jamaica  oil  varied  from  $1.75  to  $2.50  per  pound  including  the  cost  of 
the  containers. 

The  following  figures  have  been  furnished  by  a  principal  producer  in 
the  interior  of  the  island  as  representing  the  prices  realized  on  a  lot  recently 
handled:  441  bottles  sweet  orange  oil,  each  Ij4  Ib-  sold  at  $1.50  per  pound; 
557  bottles  bitter  orange  oil,  each  i%  Ib.  sold  at  $1.25  per  pound;  30  bottles 
of  dregs  not  sold ;  total  cost  including  pay  of  producer  and  delivery  in  King- 
ston, $1530,90,  receipts  $1641.54. 

TABLE  XLIX 


Countries 

1914 

I9IS 

1916 

Packages* 

Dollars 

Packages 

Dollars 

Packages 

Dollars 

United  States  

1,033 
228 
66 

14 
80 

19 

57,586 
",585 
2,954 
224 
7,056 
302 

1,276 
195 
23 

55,496 
9,688 
1,040 

1,953 
461 
10 

"9,634 
21,162 

543 

United  Kingdom  

Canada  

France. 

Germany 

Belgium 

Total  

1,440 

79,707 

1,494 

66,224 

2,424 

141,339 

*The  ordinary  export  package  contains  50  Ib.  net. 


The  heaviest  exports  are  recorded  in  1916  when  121,200  pounds  were 
shipped  abroad  of  which  81  per  cent  was  taken  by  the  United  States. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.  BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,   PART  II,    PLATE  VIII. 


(Bulletin  of  the  Pan-American  Union) 

GATHERING  THE  LEAVES  OF  THE  BITTER  ORANGE  IN  PARAGUAY. 


LIME  CULTIVATION  267 

Export  prices  show  a  variation  of  from  3  to  14  shillings  ($0.73  to  $3.41) 
a  pound.  During  the  three  years — 1914  to  1916  inclusive — the  average 
price  per  pound  was  $1.06.  In  1916  it  was  $1.17  a  pound. 

Exports. — Table  XLIX  shows  figures  taken  from  the  Blue  Book 
giving  the  volume  of  the  export  trade. 

Supply  and  demand. — There  is  a  general  impression  in  Jamaica  that 
if  the  industry  of  putting  up  orange  oil  here  gets  into  many  hands,  and 
the  shipping  and  marketing  of  it  is  independently  done  without  co- 
operation, the  trade  will  suffer.  It  is  very  necessary  that  the  oil  sent 
abroad  be  kept  up  to  as  high  and  uniform  a  standard  as  possible,  for  if 
unfair  and  inferior  grades  are  shipped  on  the  chance  of  finding  a  market, 
the  result  will  be  not  only  a  probable  loss  to  the  individual  shipper,  but 
an  indirect  loss  to  all  shippers  of  the  product.  It  is  not  an  article  the 
consumption  of  which  can  be  greatly  stimulated  by  cheapness,  and  from 
the  viewpoint  of  the  producers,  it  would  probably  be  more  advantageous 
to  market  a  limited  production  at  good  prices  than  a  large  production  at 
low  prices.  The  latter  would  lead  to  a  price-cutting,  careless  production, 
and  the  shipping  of  a  poor-class  product  to  the  foreign  markets. 

Bitter  orange  oil. — By  far  the  greater  amount  of  orange  oil  produced 
in  Jamaica  is  sweet  orange  oil,  but  bitter  orange  oil  is  also  produced  in 
exactly  the  same  way  as  the  sweet  oil  though  from  the  Seville  or  sour 
orange,  and  is  not  as  valuable  as  the  sweet  oil.  When  the  sweet  orange 
oil  is  being  sold  at  $1.75  per  pound,  the  producer  of  the  bitter  oil  counts 
himself  fortunate  if  he  succeeds  in  obtaining  $1.25  per  pound  for  his 
product.  Both  kinds  are  used  also  to  flavor  cakes  and  biscuits,  and  to 
some  extent  in  the  preparation  of  perfumes  and  essences. 

LIME  CULTIVATION 

There  are  sweet  and  sour  limes  both  confined  to  tropical  and  sub- 
tropical zones.  Limes  do  not  appear  to  flourish  in  Southern  Europe  nor 
in  many  other  localities  where  oranges  and  lemons  can  be  grown. 

The  sour  lime  (C.  Limetta),  although  probably  introduced  into 
tropical  America  from  the  East  Indies,  has  made  its  second  home  in  this 
part  of  the  world,  where  it  is  more  generally  cultivated.  The  tree  is 
described  as  probably  indigenous  to  the  wild  valleys  of  the  outer  Hima- 
layas, and  probably  also  of  the  mountain  tracts  of  the  Central  Provinces 
and  of  Central  India.  The  date  of  its  introduction  into  the  West  Indies 
is  not  recorded,  but  it  is  supposed  to  have  found  its  way  to  the  English 
islands  from  Martinique. 

Atwood,  the  historian  of  Dominica,  in  1791,  states :  "The  lemon  and  the 
lime  trees  bear  also  very  aromatic  scenting  blossoms,  and  the  fruit  of  both 


268  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

is  in  great  abundance,  large  and  of  excellent  quality.  Of  these,  the  latter 
especially,  great  quantities  are  often  sent  in  barrels  to  England  and  America. 
The  neighboring  English  islands  are  likewise  often  supplied  with  them  from 
this  island,  especially  Antigua  and  Barbados." 

Up  to  the  time  of  Imray,  in  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  century,  the 
lime  was  cultivated  to  but  a  slight  extent  in  Dominica,  and  then  for  the 
fruit  only.  Experiments  commenced  by  him  in  about  1852  showed  that  the 
cultivation  of  limes  could  be  undertaken  upon  a  commercial  scale.  About 
the  same  time,  or  a  little  later,  a  similar  cultivation  was  commenced  by 
Messrs.  Sturge  in  the  island  of  Montserrat. 

Through  the  enterprising  action  of  Messrs.  Sturge,  Montserrat  soon  be- 
came the  headquarters  of  the  lime  industry  in  the  West  Indies,  a  position 
which  in  later  years  has  been  attained  by  Dominica. 

It  would  appear  that  the  future  prospects  of  the  lime  industry  of  the 
West  Indies  are  of  a  promising  nature,  and  considerable  interest  has,  of  late, 
been  awakened  in  this  cultivation.  The  progress  made  in  the  industry  in 
Montserrat,  Dominica,  and  Jamaica  has  induced  the  planting  of  limes  in 
British  Guiana,  Trinidad,  Grenada,  Garriacou,  and  St.  Lucia. 

Records  show  that  lime  products  to  the  value  of  £280  were  exported  from 
Dominica  in  1848,  but  that  their  value  fell  to  £12  in  1857.  In  1887,  the 
value  is  given  by  (Kew  Bulletin,  August,  1888)  as  £8,561,  while  lime 
products  from  Montserrat  were  valued  at  £10,625.  The  total  value  of  lime 
products  exported  from  the  island  of  Dominica,  during  the  year  1906  was 
£55,174.  The  exports  from  Montserrat  during  the  same  period  amounted  to 
£6,883.  Those  from  Jamaica  were  of  the  value  of  £3,909,  and  from  Trinidad 
of  £982. 

The  destructive  hurricane  that  swept  Montserrat  in  1899  produced  a 
falling  off  of  lime  products  until  1908. 

The  rapid  progress  of  the  lime  industry  in  Dominica  is  largely  due  to 
the  assistance  rendered  by  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture,  which 
has  distributed  at  a  small  cost  immense  quantities  of  young  lime  trees  from 
the  Botanic  Station.  During  the  five  years,  1902-6,  over  150,000  ordinary 
lime  plants  have  been  distributed  from  the  station,  in  addition  to  nearly 
12,000  plants  of  the  spineless  variety.  For  the  year  ended  March  31,  1907, 
about  70,000  lime  plants  were  sent  out.  Of  these  60,000  were  of  the  ordinary 
kind,  and  10,000  of  the  spineless  variety.  The  agricultural  school  has  also 
taken  part  in  this  work,  and  the  pupils  are  thoroughly  trained  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  limes. 

For  the  year  1906—7,  over  5,600  lime  plants  and  8  gal.  of  lime  seeds  were 
distributed  from  the  Montserrat  Botanic  Station,  and  37,000  plants  from  St. 
Lucia.  The  majority  of  the  plants  at  St.  Lucia  were  raised  in  the  nurseries 
attached  to  the  agricultural  school. 

As  already  shown,  the  lime  industry  of  Dominica  has  made  rapid  prog- 
ress in  recent  years.  It  received  a  serious  setback  from  the  attacks  of  scale 
insects  in  1902  and  1903,  when  the  exports  dropped  from  £45,357  to  £23,420. 
Valuable  services  were  rendered  by  the  Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture 
in  successfully  checking  these  scale  attacks,  and  the  industry  rapidly  re- 
covered. The  exports  of  1907  rose  to  a  value  of  £77,407. 


ST.  LUCIAN  LIME  INDUSTRY 


269 


It  is  estimated  that  the  total  area  under  lime  cultivation  in  1912 
was  about  800  acres.  The  trees  range  in  age  from  one  to  eleven  years, 
and  the  plantations  are  on  land  situated  at  various  altitudes,  ranging 
from  sea-level  to  about  1,000  ft.,  but  the  greater  number  of  them  are 
on  alluvial  soil. 

Where  the  soil  is  light  and  naturally  well  drained  and  of  sufficient 
depth,  and  the  rainfall  approximates  to  80  in.  per  annum,  the  trees 
thrive  and  develop  remarkably  well,  frequently  beginning  to  produce 
fruits  about  the  third  or  fourth  year.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the 
soil  is  of  the  heavier  type,  although  other  conditions  may  be  favorable, 
the  development  of  the  trees  is  not  as  rapid  or  uniform,  and  they 
appear  to  be  more  subject  to  root  troubles  and  scale  insect  pests,  par- 
ticularly where  attention  has  not  been  given  to  the  proper  drainage. 

The  fifst  record  in  the  Blue  Book  of  the  Colony,  of  lime  products 
exported,  occurred  in  the  year  1906,  when  green  limes  to  the  value  of 
£299  i&y.  6rf.  and  lime  juice  valued  at  £27  were  shipped.  The  official 
records  of  lime  exports  are  given  in  Table  L. 

TABLE  L 


Year 

Green  Limes, 

Value 

Juice,  Value 

Total  Value 

1006.  . 

£ 
99 
ill 
76 
31 
13 

s. 
18 
4 
9 
13 
18 

d. 
6 
6 

2 
O 

6 

£ 
27 
81 

125 

297 

319 

s. 

0 
0 
12 

9 

IO 

d. 
o 
o 

4 
o 
o 

£ 
126 
192 
202 
328 
333 

s. 
18 

4 
i 

13 
8 

d. 
6 
6 
6 
o 
6 

1907  

1908.  . 

IQOQ.  . 

1910  

Total  

333 

3 

8 

850 

2 

4 

1,183 

6 

o 

THE   LIME   INDUSTRY    IN    ST.   LUCIA 

The  first  attempt  to  plant  limes  on  a  commercial  scale  in  St.  Lucia 
was  made  in  the  year  1901,  on  what  was  formerly  a  sugar  estate,  situ- 
ated in  a  fertile  valley,  on  the  windward  coast.  During  that  year  and 
the  following  22,112  lime  plants  were  supplied  for  this  estate  by  the 
Agricultural  Department.  From  this,  the  pioneer  lime  plantation,  there 
was  exported  about  five  years  later  the  first  concentrated  juice  produced 
in  the  island. 

Apparently,  no  further  work  in  connection  with  planting  in  other 
parts  of  the  island  was  done  until  1905,  when  other  landowners,  doubtless 
encouraged  by  the  promising  results  of  the  first  venture,  began  seriously 
to  contemplate  planting  their  lands  which  appeared  suitable  for  the  crop. 
Since  1905,  the  demand  for  lime  plants  from  the  nurseries  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Department  has  been  steady,  the  total  number  distributed  from 


270  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

April,  1901,  to  March,  1911,  being  257,907,  representing  an  average 
annual  distribution  of  25,791  plants. 

The  progress  of  the  industry  may  also  be  indicated  by  recounting  the 
number  of  estates  on  which  limes  have  been  planted,  as  given  by  the  plant 
distribution  records  of  the  Agricultural  Department.  From  1901  to  1905 
there  was  only  one  estate  on  which  limes  were  grown.  In  1905  there 
were  four ;  1906,  eleven ;  1907,  nineteen ;  1908,  twenty-four ;  1909,  thirty ; 
1910,  forty-two.  On  some  of  these,  however,  the  limes  occupy  only  a 
few  acres,  while  on  others  the  acreage  ranges  from  30  to  70.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  the  total  area  under  limes  at  the  beginning  of  1911  approxi- 
mated to  800  acres.  The  trees  range  in  age  from  one  to  nine  years. 

An  article  in  the  Agricultural  News  of  Barbados  describes  the  con- 
dition of  the  lime  industry  in  St.  Lucia : 

As  so  often  happens  when  new  industries  are  started,  a  rush  was  made 
to  plant  up  every  available  piece  of  land  with  limes,  without  considering  the 
plant's  requirements,  or  the  capabilities  of  the  land  to  be  planted,  with  the 
inevitable  result  that,  after  a  few  years  of  lingering,  whole  areas  died  out, 
leaving  isolated  trees  here  and  there  to  mark  the  former  plantation. 

Apart  from  the  waste  of  good  material,  time,  money,  and  labor,  the  iso- 
lated and  neglected  trees  became  diseased  and  pest  infested,  and  in  such  con- 
dition were  a  source  of  danger  to  neighboring  lime  plantations. 

It  is  safe  to  estimate  that  not  one-half  of  the  lime  trees  planted  during 
the  ten  years  previous  to  1921  are  alive  today,  or  exports  would  be  double 
their  present  figure.  Nevertheless,  the  experience  gained,  although  perhaps 
bitter  in  a  few  cases,  has  proved  beneficial  to  the  majority  and  limes  are 
now  planted  with  much  more  care  and  consideration  than  formerly. 

Notwithstanding  these  setbacks,  the  industry  has  made,  and  is  still 
making,  good  and  steady  progress,  and  we  can  confidently  look  forward  to  a 
sound  and  profitable  industry  being  permanently  established. 

There  are  now  seven  modern  factories  working  in  St.  Lucia  island,  where 
concentrated  lime  juice  is  prepared  in  steam-heated  wooden  vats,  and  the 
St.  Lucia  lime  juice  has  made  its  individual  marks  known  on  the  London 
market,  where  it  commands  the  maximum  prices. 

It  is  estimated  that  the  present  area  under  lime  cultivation  is  about  4,000 
acres. 

Lime  plants  must  be  protected  from  prevailing  winds,  and  their  roots 
must  be  kept  free  from  stagnant  water.  Most  of  the  St.  Lucia  lime  planta- 
tions have  been  established  on  old  and  worn  out  sugar  lands.  During  the 
four  or  five  years  that  the  plants  have  taken  to  reach  the  fruiting  stage,  very 
little  food  material  has  been  taken  from  the  soil,  and  for  the  following  year 
or  two,  good  crops  are  produced,  and  then  the  trees  begin  to  decline,  and  the 
crops  in  some  cases  have  reached  the  vanishing-point. 

EXTRACTION   OF  LIME  JUICE  BY   MILLING 

The  process  of  extracting  lime  juice  from  limes  consists  essentially 
of  squeezing  the  fruit  in  some  form  of  mill,  usually  of  the  three-roller 


FIELD  MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY.   VOL.   VI,   PART  II,   PLATE  IX. 


O.CO- 


(Bulletin  of  the  Pan- American  Union) 

BRANCH  OF  A   BITTER  ORANGE  TREE. 


LIME  JUICE  EXTRACTION  271 

type  employed  in  the  cane-sugar  industry,  possessing  iron  or  granite 
rollers,  and  driven  by  hand,  or  by  power.  It  is  often  supplemented  by 
a  cider  press  in  which  the  squeezed  skins  are  further  subjected  to  pres- 
sure in  order  to  extract  a  further  quantity  of  juice.  When  the  mills 
are  of  good  type,  however,  the  press  is  often  dispensed  with.  At  the 
present  time  ideas  regarding  the  efficacy  of  the  mills  employed  are  gen- 
erally decidedly  vague. 

The  duty  of  a  mill  is  usually  stated  in  terms  of  gallons  of  juice  ex- 
pressed per  barrel  of  limes.  Such  a  statement  leaves  something  to  be 
desired.  In  the  first  place,  the  size  of  the  barrel  is  liable  to  vary  to  some 
extent ;  in  the  second  place,  while  it  is  true  that  the  volume  occupied  by 
a  given  weight  of  limes  will  remain  constant  irrespective  of  size,  provided 
that  the  limes  are  uniform  in  size,  on  the  other  hand,  individual  varia- 
tions in  the  size  of  limes  may  induce  appreciable  variations  in  the  quan- 
tity of  limes  measured.  Moreover,  the  possibility  must  not  be  overlooked 
that  the  vessels  in  which  the  expressed  juice  is  measured  may  sometimes 
be  considerably  in  error,  in  the  measurements  which  they  record.  Con- 
sequently, it  is  not  surprising  that  there  exists  a  considerable  divergence 
of  opinion  as  to  the  quantity  of  lime  juice  which  it  is  possible  to  express 
from  a  barrel  of  limes  by  milling. 

The  problems  connected  with  the  extraction  of  lime  juice  as  prac- 
ticed in  the  West  Indies  at  the  present  time  are  in  many  ways  not  dis- 
similar from  those  encountered  in  obtaining  the  juice  from  the  sugar 
cane.  In  fact,  in  many  cases,  old  cane  mills  have  been  adapted  to  the 
purpose  of  expressing  lime  juice,  and  so  far  as  the  actual  extraction  is 
concerned,  the  processes  in  the  case  of  the  two  industries  are  identical. 

In  the  case  of  the  sugar  cane  it  is  well  known  that  the  juice  content 
and  fiber  content  of  the  cane,  as  also  the  saccharine  richness  of  the  juice, 
will  depend  very  largely  on  the  locality  in  which  the  cane  is  produced. 
Canes,  grown  under  dry  climatic  conditions,  usually  contain  less  juice  and 
more  fiber  than  canes  produced  in  localities  with  abundant  water  supply. 
Consequently  the  simple  statement  of  the  amount  of  juice  expressed 
from  a  given  bulk  of  canes  does  not  afford  an  adequate  measure  of  the 
efficacy  of  a  cane  mill,  since  this  will  vary  with  the  juice  content  of  the 
cane. 

If  the  juice  content  of  limes  varies  with  the  conditions  under  which 
the  fruit  is  produced,  in  the  same  way,  the  mere  expression  "gallons  of 
juice  obtained  per  barrel  of  limes"  can  only  have  a  local  significance, 
even  though  the  measurement  of  the  quantities  were  strictly  accurate. 

With  a  view  to  ascertaining  in  what  way  the  characteristics  of  the  fruit 
vary  according  to  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  produced,  samples  of 


272 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


limes  were  obtained  from  different  localities  in  Dominica,  Montserrat,  and 
Antigua  by  Tempanay  and  Weil. 

In  all,  ten  samples  of  limes  were  examined;  in  each  case  the  average 
weight  and  volume  of  one  fruit  were  first  determined.  Ten  average  fruits 
were  then  weighed  and  the  juice  gently  expressed  by  a  hand  press;  the  juice 
was  collected  in  a  tared  beaker  and  weighed  separately.  The  acidity  in  terms 
of  citric  acid,  as  well  as  the  specific  gravity  ^£3  C.  of  the  expressed  juice 
was  determined.  On  the  skins,  the  acidity  in  terms  of  citric  acid  and  the 
moisture  content  were  determined.  From  these  values  the  percentage  of 
actual  juice  present  in  each  sample  of  limes  was  calculated.  In  making  this 
calculation  the  following  formula  was  used : 

Juice  content  of  lime      =  x  (100 — x}  T 

o 

Where  x  =     percentage  by  weight  of  juice  extracted 
a  —     acid  content  of  skins,  per  cent 
b  =     acid  content  of  juice,  per  cent 


TABLE  LI 


Estate 

Average  Weight  of 
One  Lime  in  Gms. 

Average  Volume  of 
One  Lime  in  c.c. 

Juice  Per  Cent 
Extracted 

"o 
>, 

ffc 

Oo" 

£« 

ll 
&1 

Acidity  of  Juice  in 
gm.  per  100  c.c. 

Moisture,  Percent-  [ 
age  in  Lime  Skins 

Acidity,  Percentage 
in  Lime  Skins 

Juice,  Percentage 
in  Limes 

Specific  Gravity  of 
One  Fruit 

Grove,  Montserrat  

6l.2 

60.6 

49.4 

1.0342 

8.43 

77.  •» 

I.Q2 

61.^ 

I.OQO 

Isles  Bay,  Montserrat.  .  .  . 

51.4 

50.8 

1.0339 

(8-15%) 
8.25 

79.2 

1-79 

6r  8 

La  Haut,  Dominica  

74.O 

74.O 

46.0 

1.0322 

(7-99%) 
7.19 

80.3 

I.8S 

60.1 

I.OOO 

Lisdara,  Dominica  

7I.O 

7O.O 

SO.6 

1.0292 

(6.97%) 
7-39 

83.0 

I.*-2 

61.1 

I.  Oil 

(ordinary) 
Lisdara  Dominica  

4.Q.O 

48.6 

SO.4 

I.O^OO 

(7-19%) 
8.25 

8o.O 

I.  Q4. 

62.1 

I.OI 

(spineless) 
Canefield,  Dominica  .... 

Botanic  Station,  Dominica 
Dimsdale,  Antigua  

75-3 
64.0 
31.3 

72.9 
65.0 
30.5 

48.8 
51-2 
38.4 

1.0346 
1.0327 

1.0409 

(8.00%) 
8.25 
(7-97%) 
7-45 
(7.21%) 
8.67 

82.2 
79-4 

2.36 
1.82 
3.19 

64.0 

63.5 
62.0 

1.032 
0.984 
I.O26 

O'Garas,  Montserrat  

66.6 

66.4 

46.2 

1-0379 

(8-32%) 
8.91 

(8-59%) 

2.64 

62.7 

1.003 

The  acidity  was  determined  by  a  modification  of  Prinsen  Geerligs' 
method  for  the  determination  of  sucrose  in  megass. 

A  quantity  of  skins  amounting  to  100  gm.  is  weighed  into  a  tared  beaker, 
500  c.c.  of  distilled  water  is  added,  and  the  mixture  boiled  for  twenty-five 
minutes.  The  beaker  and  contents  are  then  cooled  to  ordinary  temperature 


LIME  JUICE  EXTRACTION  273 

and  weighed.  An  amount  of  the  solution  measuring  100  c.c.  is  then  de- 
livered by  means  of  a  pipette  into  an  evaporating  basin,  diluted  with  half 
its  volume  of  water,  and  titrated  against  normal  sodium  hydroxide,  using 
phenolphthalein  as  indicator. 

From  the  weight  of  the  beaker  and  contents  after  boiling  are  deducted 
the  tare  of  the  former  and  the  weight  of  the  skins  employed  (100  gm.).  To 
this  figure  is  added  80  to  allow  for  dilution  consequent  on  the  moisture  in  the 
skins,  and  the  result  multiplied  by  the  number  of  c.c.  of  normal  sodium 
hydroxide  used  and  by  0.00070.  This  gives  the  percentage  of  acid  content 
of  the  skins  in  terms  of  citric  acid. 

Comparison  of  the  values  for  the  acidity  as  determined  by  the  foregoing 
method  with  determinations  on  the  same  samples  by  the  Soxhlet  extraction 
method  gave  results  in  close  agreement. 

The  results  obtained  are  given  in  Table  LI. 

An  examination  of  these  results  shows  that  the  average  weight  and 
volume  of  a  single  fruit,  as  also  the  acidity  of  the  juice,  vary  according 
to  the  locality  in  which  the  fruit  is  grown,  the  former  characteristics 
varying  directly  and  the  latter  inversely  with  the  rainfall  at  the  place  of 
origin. 

The  percentage  of  juice  contained  in  the  fruit,  however,  varies  rela- 
tively little,  amounting  approximately  to  62  per  cent  of  the  total  weight 
of  the  fruit.  This  result  is  of  a  distinctly  unexpected  character,  since 
comparison  with  the  sugar  cane  would  tend  to  the  belief  that  the  juice 
content  would  be  materially  less  in  dry  localities.  It  follows  from  this 
that  measurement  of  the  extraction  of  the  juice,  if  accurately  performed, 
will  afford  a  reliable  criterion  of  the  efficacy  of  the  milling  in  lime  juice 
works. 

As  has  already  been  said,  however,  the  character  of  measurements  of 
this  description  often  leaves  something  to  be  desired;  and  it  appeared 
that  a  useful  purpose  would  be  served  if  the  endeavor  was  made  to  de- 
vise some  simple  system  of  mill  control  which  could  be  used  as  a  check 
on  mill  work  at  any  time  without  involving  alteration  of  conditions. 

The  value  of  the  analysis  of  megass,  in  the  control  of  cane  mills, 
prompted  the  inquiry  as  to  whether  equally  valuable  results  can  be  at- 
tained by  the  analysis  of  the  squeezed  lime  skins  left  after  the  extraction 
of  the  juice.  In  view  of  the  constancy  of  the  juice  content  of  whole  limes, 
the  determination  of  the  amount  of  residual  juice  left  in  the  squeezed 
skins  appears  to  constitute  a  complete  check  on  the  efficacy  of  the  milling 
at  the  time  the  sample  was  taken. 

A  considerable  number  of  tests  on  these  lines  were  performed  on 
lime  mills  in  Dominica,  Montserrat,  and  Antigua,  with  a  view  to  test- 
ing the  value  of  the  method  of  control  and  of  ascertaining  the  efficacy  of 
the  mill  work  in  the  industry. 


274 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


The  method  pursued  was  to  take  a  sample  of  expressed  skins  and  of  the 
juice  flowing  from  the  mill  at  the  same  time;  to  determine  the  acidity  of  the 
juice  and  the  acidity  of  the  skins,  and  to  calculate  the  juice  lost  in  100  Ib. 
of  the  squeezed  skins  by  means  of  the  formula: 


juice  lost  per  100  Ib.  of 
squeezed  skins 


acidity  of  skins  per  cent 
acidity  of  juice  in  Ib.  per  gal. 


The  results  are  given  in  Table  LIT. 


TABLE  LII 


No.  of  Mill 

No.  of 
Test 

Gallons  of  Juice  Lost 
per  100  Lb.  of  Skins 

f  i 

2.8 

2 

2.8 

3 

A.-l 

s 

2.6 

Dominica    • 

6 

1.8 

7 

2.4. 

8 

2.7 

9 

•*.•* 

Lio 

s«o 

II 

I 

2 

3 

2.13 
1.99 

1.98 

Antigua.   

12 

4 
5 

(        ' 

2.29 
2.40 

3.15 

I          2 

3.41 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  figures  for  the  amount  of  juice  lost  per  100  Ib.  of 
skins  vary  considerably.  The  best  result  is  obtained  in  the  case  of  No.  6 — 
a  Dominican  mill — in  which  the  loss  amounted  to  1.8  gal.  of  juice  per  100 
Ib.  of  skins.  This  is  a  cane  mill  of  modern  construction,  with  pressure- 
regulating  apparatus  attached. 

An  interesting  series  of  results  is"  given  in  the  case  of  mill  No.  n,  in 
which  a  series  of  tests  on  five  separate  occasions  indicated  losses  varying  be- 
tween 1.98  and  2.40  gal.  of  juice  per  100  Ib.  of  skins,  and  averaging  2.16. 
The  mill  in  question  is  one  with  granite  rollers,  driven  by  a  3^  horse-power 
oil  engine.  It  appears  from  these  results  that  the  minimum  amount  of  juice 
lost  in  this  form  of  milling  is  somewhere  in  the  region  of  1.8  to  2.0  gal.  of 
juice,  per  100  Ib.  of  skins.  If  we  regard  this  minimum  loss  as  unavoidable, 
the  fact  remains  that  in  the  majority  of  instances  the  avoidable  loss  in  mill- 
ing varies  from  y*  gal.  to  over  i  gal.  of  juice  per  100  Ib.  of  skins.  If  we 
assume  that  a  barrel  of  limes  gives  80  Ib.  of  pressed  skins — an  assumption 
not  very  far  from  the  truth — we  find  that  the  avoidable  losses  under  existing 


LIME  JUICE  FOR  CORDIALS  275 

conditions  of  milling  range  in  the  majority  of  cases  from  0.4  to  0.8  gal.  of 
juice  per  barrel  of  limes. 

It  is  not  at  present  clear  whether  with  systematic  attention,  it  might 
not  be  possible  to  reduce  the  loss  sustained  under  the  present  system  of 
milling  considerably  below  1.8  gal.  of  juice  per  100  Ib.  of  skins.  If  it 
is  not,  it  seems  that  the  possibility  of  the  maceration  of  skins  with  a  view 
to  the  extraction  of  the  residual  juice  might  be  worthy  of  consideration 
in  the  case  of  plants  producing  citrate  of  lime.  It  is  doubtful  how  far  it 
would  be  of  value  in  the  case  of  concentrated  juice,  by  reason  of  the 
necessity  for  greatly  increased  evaporations  in  consequence  of  the  dilu- 
tion resulting  from  maceration. 

It  seems  probable  that,  when  raw  juice  is  being  prepared  for  the  pur- 
pose of  making  lime-juice  cordial,  very  high  pressures  are  undesirable 
owing  to  the  amount  of  pectic  matter  likely  to  be  introduced  into  the 
juice  in  consequence.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  concentrated  juice  or 
citrate  of  lime  is  being  manufactured,  the  condition  of  affairs  is  different, 
and  it  is  suggested  that  careful  attention  to  the  milling  of  limes  is  likely 
to  be  productive  of  appreciable  increases  of  yield. 

The  method  described  in  the  foregoing  pages  appears  to  offer  a 
simple  and  effective  check  on  the  mill  work  accomplished,  and  may  be 
recommended  as  likely  to  yield  useful  results,  on  trial. 

LIME  JUICE  FOR  CORDIALS  AND  FLAVORING 

Lime  juice  intended  for  making  cordials  and  for  flavoring  confec- 
tions requires  very  careful  preparation.  The  limes  should  be  washed 
before  being  crushed  in  mills  fitted  with  granite  rollers.  Only  the  first 
juice  obtained  by  lightly  crushing  the  fruit  through  the  first  rollers  is 
used.  The  second  juice  and  the  press  juice  which  are  weaker  in  acid  are 
used  for  concentrating. 

The  first  mill  juice  is  carefully  strained  and  placed  into  puncheons 
when  quite  fresh.  Formerly  it  was  run  into  vats,  and  after  settling  the 
clear  juice  was  placed  in  puncheons  or  hogsheads  for  export. 

It  is  well  known  that  raw  juice  carefully  strained  and  placed  in  pack- 
ages when  quite  fresh  will  keep  in  good  condition  for  a  considerable 
time,  but  if  lime  juice  is  exposed  to  the  air  it  will  gradually  lose  its 
acidity. 

The  raw-juice  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  two  or  three  firms  and  prob- 
ably different  methods  are  employed  in  each  case. 

LIME  JUICE  DISCOLORATION 

The  results  of  the  preliminary  work  conducted  by  Hardy,  in  collabora- 
tion with  F.  H.  S.  Warneford,  on  the  coloring  matters  of  lime  products, 


276  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

suggests  that  the  yellow  and  brown  colors  of  these  products  are  chiefly  due 
to  polyphenol  compounds,  not  unlike  certain  of  those  described  by  the  Louisi- 
ana workers1  as  occurring  in  cane  juices  and  syrups.  Without  going  into 
details,  it  is  believed  that  fresh  lime  juice  contains  certain  tannins  or  tannin- 
forming  substances  that  yield  colored  products  during  the  several  stages  of 
citric  acid  manufacture.  Of  particular  interest  are  the  indications  already 
obtained  in  the  laboratories  that  these  colored  products  are  chiefly  due  to 
oxidation.  Especially  noticeable  is  the  rapid  darkening  which  goes  on  when 
heated  lime  juice  is  neutralized  by  lime  in  the  preparation  of  calcium  citrate. 
A  slight  excess  of  lime  in  the  liquor  is  accompanied  by  the  appearance  of  a 
deep-brown  color.  A  phenomenon  of  this  sort  due  to  oxidation  is  well  known 
in  the  chemistry  of  tannins,  and  can  easily  be  demonstrated  by  rendering 
alkaline  a  solution  of  some  such  compound  as  pyrogallol,  and  the  addition 
of  an  alkali. 

Lime  juice,  especially  after  keeping,  on  treatment  with  a  solution  of  a 
ferric  salt,  yields  a  compound  of  red-brown  color,  which,  in  all  probability 
is  an  iron- polyphenol  compound.  It  has  long  been  known  that  lime  juice, 
extracted  by  mills  possessing  iron  rollers,  yields  darker-colored  products 
than  doea  juice  extracted  by  means  of  granite  rollers.  The  effect  is  especially 
noticeable  when  the  iron  rollers  have  been  allowed  to  rust.  These  facts  are 
exactly  paralleled  by  experience  in  sugar  manufacture.  Undoubtedly  the 
acidic  substances  present  in  most  of  the  plant  saps  that  receive  treatment  in 
plant  products  factories  are  the  agents  primarily  responsible  for  the  forma- 
tion of  soluble  ferric  salts  by  their  corrosive  action  on  iron  surfaces  with 
which  the  saps  come  into  contact,  more  particularly  when  those  surfaces  are 
covered  with  iron  rust. 

A  boiling  aqueous  solution  of  citric  acid  attacks  pure  iron  only  slowly. 
Ferrous  hydrogen  citrate  is  formed.  The  same  acid,  however,  attacks  ferric 
hydroxide2  (iron  rust)  quite  readily,  with  the  formation  of  ferric  citrate.3 
This  latter  compound  (although  itself  not  deeply  colored  in  dilute  solution), 
being  a  soluble  ferric  salt,  is  capable  of  reacting  with  certain  polyphenols, 
such  as  various  tannins,  to  yield  compounds  of  an  intense  green  or  brown 
color. 

A.  E.  Collens  reports  an  interesting  analysis  of  a  red-brown  sediment 
taken  from  an  iron  vessel  used  in  lime-juice  concentration  on  a  Dominica 
estate.  Over  74  per  cent  of  iron  calculated  as  ferric  oxide  soluble  in  hydro- 
chloric acid  was  found  in  this  sediment,  and  was  present  in  large  quantity  as 
ferric  citrate. 

It  is  self-evident  from  the  foregoing  considerations  that  the  surfaces  of 
all  iron,  vessels,  pipes,  machinery,  etc.,  used  in  citric  acid  manufacture  should 
be  maintained  in  as  clean  a  condition  as  possible,  not  only  to  minimize  the 
production  of  deeply  colored  compounds  but  also  to  present  the  introduction 
into  the  citric  acid  liquors  of  objectionable  quantities  of  iron,  which  are 
troublesome  to  remove  in  the  preparation  of  high-grade  crystals. 

'See  abstracts  in  Agricultural  News,  XX,  No.  479  (September  4,  1920),  278; 
XIX,  No.  483  (October  30,  1920),  340;  and  XIX,  No.  487  (December  24,  1920), 
406;  XX,  No.  507  (October  i,  1921),  308. 

2Watt's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry. 

'Unpublished  record  of  the  Leeward  Islands  Laboratory,  1918. 


LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION  277 

The  possibility  of  contamination  of  citric  acid  liquors  by  non-ferrous 
metals  such  as  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  nickel,  which  are  also  used  in  the  con- 
struction of  various  units  of  the  citric  acid  plant,  has  received  considerable 
attention.  While  the  non-ferrous  metals  are  relatively  unimportant  from 
the  viewpoint  of  their  being  likely  sources  of  coloration,  their  presence  in 
citric  acid  crystals  is  highly  undesirable,  since  much  of  the  acid  of  best 
quality  is  intended  eventually  to  enter  into  the  composition  of  articles  for 
human  consumption. 

A.  E.  Collens1  has  conducted  an  interesting  investigation  into  the  cor- 
rosive action  of  citric  acid  liquors  on  copper  and  brass  under  both  factory 
and  laboratory  conditions.  He  found  that  strips  of  these  materials  immersed 
in  fresh  lime  juice  at  air  temperature  in  seven  days  lost  respectively  0.167 
and  o.i  10  per  cent  of  their  weight.  In  boiling  lime  juice  the  loss  was  appre- 
ciably greater.  Concentrated  juice  did  not  differ  remarkably  from  fresh 
juice  in  its  corrosive  action  on  copper  and  brass.  Various  West  Indian 
planters  have  reported  some  slight  action  of  citric  acid  liquors  on  non- 
ferrous  metals  in  the  factory,  but  have  stated  that  the  corrosive  effect  is  not 
great.  There  appears  to  be  no  reason  for  the  preference  for  copper  over 
brass  in  the  construction  of  pumps,  evaporator-coils,  etc.,  in  the  citric  acid 
factory,  especially  if  hard  brass  be  used.  Nevertheless,  great  attention  is 
paid  in  modern  citric  acid  factories,  producing  the  highest  grade  crystals, 
to  the  removal  of  the  merest  traces  of  metals  from  the  final  liquors.  Iron 
and  nickel  are  removed  by  the  use  of  calcium  f errocyanide ;  copper,  lead,  tin, 
and  antimony,  by  the  use  of  hydrogen  sulphide.2 

CITRATE  OF  LIME  AND  CONCENTRATED  LIME  JUICE 

It  is  well  known  that  lemon  and  lime  juice  constitute  the  raw  material 
from  which  citric  acid  is  manufactured ;  these  juices  usually  contain  from 
10  to  15  oz.  of  citric  acid  per  gallon,  sometimes  exceeding  these  limits 
from  exceptional  causes ;  if  exported  in  this  condition  the  cost  for  freight 
and  packages  would  be  exceedingly  high,  hence  efforts  are  made  to  obtain 
the  citric  acid  in  a  more  concentrated  form.  Three  methods  of  doing  this 
have  been  suggested ;  concentration  of  the  juice  by  boiling,  the  prepara- 
tion of  citrate  of  lime,  and  finally  the  preparation  of  citric  acid  in  the 
country  where  the  fruit  is  grown.  The  first  two  have  for  their  object 
merely  the  production  of  raw  material  for  the  manufacturer  in  a  con- 
centrated form. 

The  preparation  of  concentrated  lemon  and  lime  juice  is  a  very  simple 
matter :  The  juice  is  passed  through  strainers  to  remove  seeds  and  float- 
ing impurities,  and  is  then  boiled  down  to  a  proper  degree  of  concentra- 
tion, in  copper  or  iron  vessels,  over  open  fires  much  in  the  same  way  that 
cane  juice  is  evaporated  in  the  old-fashioned  muscovado  process  of  sugar- 
making.  When  several  evaporating  vessels  are  placed  in  a  series  over  the 
same  fire,  forming  a  battery,  it  is  important  to  notice  that  the  vessel  or 

Unpublished  record  of  the  Leeward  Islands  Laboratory,  1917. 
2See  pp.  253-55. 


278  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

pan  in  which  the  juice  is  brought  to  its  highest  state  of  concentration  is 
farthest  from  the  fire ;  while  that  containing  the  fresh  juice  is  over  the 
fire  itself ;  thus  a  battery  for  lime  juice  is  hung  in  the  reverse  way  to  a 
sugar  battery. 

In  concentrating  lemon  juice  efforts  are  made  to  obtain  a  product 
containing  64  oz.  of  citric  acid  per  gallon,  this  being  regarded  as  the 
standard  strength  and  a  pipe  of  108  gal.  being  regarded  as  a  standard 
package;  hence  when  the  market  price  of  concentrated  juice  is  quoted  at 
so  much  per  pipe  these  standard  quantities  are  assumed.  In  reality  these 
quotations  refer  to  an  arbitrary  quantity  of  432  Ib.  of  citric  acid.  In 
the  production  of  concentrated  lime  juice  in  the  West  Indies  it  has  been 
the  practice  to  carry  the  concentration  to  a  higher  degree  than  this,  so 
that  concentrated  lime  juice  usually  contains  upwards  of  96  oz.  per  gal- 
lon ;  a  good  rule  in  practice  is  to  endeavor  to  produce  concentrated  juice 
which  will  have  a  uniform  specific  gravity  of  about  1.300.  In  dealing 
with  lime  and  lemon  juices  a  particular  form  of  hydrometer,  known  as 
a  citrometer  is  frequently  made  use  of,  though  its  use  is  less  common 
than  formerly.  Knowledge  of  the  origin  of  its  scale  and  the  meaning  of 
its  indications  appear  to  have  been  lost ;  from  experiments  which  Sir  F. 
Watts  made  some  years  ago  he  came  to  the  conclusion  that  the  instru- 
ment was  so  constructed  that  when  placed  in  hot  (boiling)  lemon  juice 
it  will  indicate  the  same  degree  as  a  Twaddel's  hydrometer  floating  in 
the  same  juice  in  the  cold.  It  is  thus  a  useful  instrument  in  the  hands 
of  the  man  in  charge  of  the  concentrating  pans,  for  he  can  from  time  to 
time  test  the  juice  rapidly,  in  a  hot  condition,  and  arrest  the  boiling  when 
the  citrometer  indicates  the  same  degree  which  on  a  Twaddel's  instru- 
ment will  correspond  to  the  specific  gravity  1.33;  this  of  course  is  60°. 
Hence  the  rule  for  concentrating  becomes :  Carry  on  the  concentration 
until  the  citrometer,  when  immersed  in  the  juice  at  the  boiling  tempera- 
ture, shows  a  density  of  60°.  The  product  thus  obtained  is  a  dark,  nearly 
black,  thick  liquid. 

It  is  often  urged  that  there  is  very  considerable  loss  of  citric  acid 
when  juice  is  treated  in  this  manner.  When  juice  of  good  quality  is 
treated,  the  loss  is  about  7  to  8  per  cent  of  the  original  acid;  when  juice 
of  poor  quality  is  dealt  with,  this  loss  may  reach  10  or  12  per  cent,  prob- 
ably owing  to  the  greater  length  of  time  required  to  concentrate  the 
poorer  juice  to  the  required  density.  If  concentration  is  carried  beyond 
the  point  indicated  the  loss  rapidly  increases. 

The  method  of  concentrating  lime  juice  favored  on  estates  having  an 
appreciable  area  of  limes  is  that  by  steam  in  wooden  vats.  The  first 
small  factory  erected  in  St.  Lucia  was  of  this  type,  and  probably  the 


LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION  279 

first  of  its  kind  in  the  West  Indies.  The  mill  has  granite  rollers,  is 
steam  driven,  and  the  juice  is  boiled  in  wooden  vats,  in  the  bottom  of 
each  of  which  is  fitted  a  copper  steam  coil.  Coils  of  heavily  tinned  cop- 
per, or  preferably  of  block  tin,  are  recommended  as  being  most  suitable, 
as  they  are  less  subject  to  the  action  of  the  acid,  and  consequently,  a 
purer  juice  is  obtained. 

The  modern  factory  on  an  estate  of  60  or  more  acres  of  limes  might  be 
equipped  to  advantage,  at  the  outset,  with  a  plant  that  could  readily  be 
turned  to  account  for  the  production  of  a  pure  product  in  the  form  of 
raw  or  concentrated  juice,  or  citrate  of  lime,  according  to  demand  or 
state  of  the  market. 

A  steam  concentrating  plant  will  make  it  possible  to  produce  a 
superior  class  of  concentrated  juice,  and  admits  of  a  change  to  citrate 
manufacture,  as  it  can  be  readily  adapted  to  the  latter  by  the  addition  of 
one  or  more  neutralizing  vats  plus  facilities  for  drying  the  citrate.  It 
might  be  possible  to  devise  some  form  of  steam  drier  for  the  citrate,  and 
thus  to  utilize  farther  the  steam-heating  plant.  Again,  by  substituting 
granite  for  iron  rollers,  and  earthenware  juice  pump  and  pipe  connec- 
tions for  metal  ones,  the  purest  raw  juice  for  beverages  could  be  turned 
out,  as  desired.  The  following  are  mentioned  as  possible  advantages 
attending  the  concentration  of  juice  by  'steam  in  conjunction  with  the 
use  of  non-metallic  rollers  and  vat  connections,  in  a  well-arranged 
factory : 

1.  The  loss  of  acid  by  combining  with  metal  would  be  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  a  purer  sample  of  juice  would  be  obtained. 

2.  There  would  be  a  smaller  destruction  of  acid  from  excessive  heat 
during  concentration. 

3.  The  possibility  of  reaching  a  higher  degree  of  concentration  with- 
out the  serious  destruction  of  acid  which  is  unavoidable  with  the  direct 
firing  method. 

4.  The  heating,  boiling,  frothing,  and  general  handling  of  the  hot 
juice  in  a  well-arranged  factory  is  likely  to  be  under  more  perfect  control 
than  is  possible  under  the  old  methods ;  and  the  works  could  be  more 
efficiently  controlled,  and  greater  cleanliness  maintained. 

5.  The  heating  value  per  unit  of  fuel  used  in  the  steam  concentrating 
method,  as  compared  with  the  similar  value  of  that  employed  in  direct 
firing  is  also  a  question  worth  attention  when  the  two  systems  of  manu- 
facture are  being  compared. 

MAC  INTYRE'S  EXPERIMENTS  IN  LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION 

The  experiments  in  lime  juice  concentration  which  are  here  described 
were  carried  out  by  Maclntyre  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  loss  of 


280  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

acid  occurring  at  various  degrees  of  concentration  so  as  to  be  in  a  position 
to  judge  whether  the  cost  of  steam- jacketed  pans  or  other  plant  would  be 
justified,  and  incidentally,  to  determine  the  point  to  which  it  is  most  eco- 
nomical to  concentrate. 

The  experiments  were  carried  out  throughout  the  crop  of  1910.  The 
earlier  experiments  showed  marked  variations  due  probably  to  a  variety  of 
causes,  but  principally  ( i )  to  great  variations  in  the  quality  of  the  fuel  used, 
resulting  in  very  unequal  firing;  (2)  to  the  unsatisfactory  method  adopted 
for  ascertaining  the  quantities  of  concentrated  juice;  and  (3)  to  the  im- 
possibility during  the  pressure  of  crop  of  allowing  sufficient  time  for  the  juice 
to  cool  thoroughly  before  being  gauged.  Toward  the  end  of  the  crop  it  was 
possible  to  remedy  these  defects,  and  the  result  of  these  latter  and  more 
accurate  experiments,  only,  are  considered.  Besides  the  ordinary  boiling- 
house  equipment  not  directly  connected  with  the  experiments,  the  plant  con- 
sisted of  the  following : 

1.  A  battery  of  three  copper  tayches,  two  of  these  being  of  150  gal.  each, 
and  one  of  220-gal.  capacity,  the  last  being  farthest  from  the  fire  and  being 
the  copper  from  which  the  concentrated  juice  was  "struck,"  4  to  5  hogsheads 
being  taken  at  each  strike. 

2.  A  package  of  24O-gal.  capacity,  accurately  gauged  for  the  measure- 
ment of  the  distilled  juice  used  in  the  experiments.    This  was  fitted  with  a 
lead  pipe  to  conduct  the  juice  direct  to  the  first  tayche. 

3.  A  package  of  3OO-gal.  capacity,  fitted  with  a  hook  gauge  for  measur- 
ing the  concentrated  juice. 

During  Maclntyre's  earlier  experiments  a  gauging  rod  was  used  for  as- 
certaining the  quantities  of  concentrated  juice,  but  this  method  was  found  to 
be  unreliable,  and  measurement  by  hook  gauge  was  substituted. 

As  the  great  accuracy  necessary  in  experiments  of  this  nature  is  not  easy 
to  secure  when  measuring  large  quantities  of  liquid,  a  brief  description  of  the 
hook  gauge  which  he  used  may  not  be  out  of  place  here.  His  gauge  was  made 
somewhat  in  the  form  of  a  surveyor's  leveling  staff.  To  the  bottom  of  the 
sliding  rod  was  fixed  a  brass  picture  hook  in  such  a  way  that  the  point  of  the 
hook,  which  was  filed  quite  sharp,  would  point  upward  when  the  gauge  was 
in  position.  The  staff  was  securely  fixed  vertically  in  the  measuring  vat,  the 
upper  part,  on  which  the  scale  was  marked,  projecting  above  the  vat.  To 
the  upper  end  of  the  sliding  rod  (which  was  only  half  the  height  of  the  staff) 
was  fixed  a  piece  of  sheet  brass  filed  to  a  chisel  edge  on  the  upper  side.  The 
scale  was  carefully  adjusted  and  marked  on  the  staff.  The  method  of  using 
is  as  follows :  When  it  is  desired  to  measure  any  liquid  in  the  package,  the 
sliding  rod  is  raised  or  lowered  until  the  point  of  the  hook  just  breaks  the 
surface  of  the  liquid  and  a  reading  is  taken  on  the  scale,  on  the  line  indicated 
by  the  edge  of  the  brass  plate.  With  this  instrument  it  is  possible  to  get 
very  fine  readings,  but  accuracy  obviously  depends  on  the  correctness  of  the 
scale.  To  get  the  scale  he  first  weighed  a  gallon  of  clear  river  water.  Into 
an  open  oil  drum  set  on  a  very  sensitive  scale  he  poured  water  to  the  weight 
of  5  gal.  at  a  time.  Each  time  the  weight  was  reached  the  water  was  run 
into  the  vat  situated  on  a  lower  floor,  the  rod  adjusted,  and  a  line  marked 
on  the  staff.  Precautions  were  taken  to  prevent  spilling  or  much  disturbance 


LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION  281 

of  the  surface  of  the  liquid.  In  this  way  the  5-gal.  divisions  were  obtained, 
the  intermediate  lines  being  subsequently  put  in  with  the  aid  of  a  graduated 
scale  and  a  pair  of  dividers. 

The  scale  was  a  fairly  open  one,  and  it  was  possible  to  read  to  J4  gal- 
As  the  quantities  to  be  measured  were  from  180  gal.  upward,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  error  of  measurement  was  reduced  to  a  minimum.  He  subsequently 
tested  the  scale  in  other  ways  and  found  it  accurate. 

He  used  this  gauge  for  ascertaining  the  capacity  of  the  vat  for  measur- 
ing the  distilled  juice  used  in  the  experiments.  By  doing  this  he  further 
insured  accuracy,  as  even  if  the  scales  on  the  gauge  did  not  represent  the 
number  of  gallons  indicated,  the  error  would  be  repeated  in  the  other  measur- 
ing package — the  volumes  would  be  the  same  in  both,  and  thus  the  ratios 
would  be  correct. 

The  juice  having  been  distilled  and  subsided  as  usual,  clear  juice  was 
run  from  the  subsiders  into  a  small  tank  from  which  it  was  pumped  into  the 
measuring  vat,  and  a  sample  (50  c.c.)  taken,  after  which  the  juice  was  run 
into  the  tayches  as  required.  At  the  end  of  each  day  the  aggregate  sample 
was  measured  to  secure  accuracy  of  the  tally,  and  tested  for  acid.  Large 
quantities  of  juice  were  used  for  each  experiment,  in  order  as  far  as  possible 
to  reduce  the  experimental  error. 

Throughout  the  work,  the  juice  was  run  into  the  copper  immediately  over 
the  fire,  and  the  strike  taken  from  that  farthest  from  the  fire.1  The  coppers 
were  always  kept  quite  full2  except  when  striking  or  when  charging  up  to 
close  an  experiment,  and  always  cooled  down  for  an  hour  or  more  before 
taking  a  strike.  Leakage  around  the  tayches,  which  is  sometimes  consider- 
able, did  not  occur  during  the  progress  of  these  experiments,  nor  was  there 
any  leakage  from  either  of  the  measuring  vats. 

The  strike  was  taken  direct  into  the  measuring  vat  and  allowed  to  cool, 
when  the  quantity  was  ascertained  and  a  sample  taken  after  the  juice  had 
been  thoroughly  stirred.  The  tests  for  acid  were  made  with  the  greatest 
care. 

In  these  later  experiments  every  effort  was  made  to  keep  the  fire  as 
regular  as  possible  and,  as  will  be  seen,  the  results  are  wonderfully  uniform, 
having  regard  to  the  fact  that  the  juice  was  boiled  by  direct  fire,  which  is 
difficult  to  control. 

Assuming  a  normal  loss,  the  point  of  economical  concentration  would  be 
about  9  to  I,  which  would  give  97.6  oz.  acid  per  gallon  with  a  loss  of  9.3  per 
cent.  This  would  be  presented  by  citrometer  degree  54  at  boiling  tempera- 
ture. It  is  difficult  to  fix  the  degree  by  citrometer  with  accuracy,  as  the  cool- 
ing down  for  the  strike  greatly  affects  the  reading.  At  7  to  i  concentration 
the  loss  is  6.9  per  cent ;  at  8  to  I  concentration  the  loss  is  7.9  per  cent ;  at  9  to 
I  concentration  the  loss  is  9.3  per  cent;  at  10  to  i  concentration  the  loss  is  n.i 

lMadntyre  emphasizes  the  importance  of  striking  away  from  the  fire.  In  a 
large  number  of  boiling  tests  carried  out  by  him  some  years  ago  when  striking  from 
the  copper  immediately  over  the  fire  the  average  loss  at  10  to  I  concentration  was 
20.3  per  cent.  This  was  in  addition  to  acid  lost  in  filter  sludge.  The  system  has 
been  discontinued  in  all  estates  in  Dominica. 

2Messrs.  Ogston  and  Moore  express  the  opinion  that  the  loss  of  acid  in  concen- 
tration is  very  much  greater  when  the  surface  level  of  the  juice  in  the  tayches  is 
allowed  to  sink  below  flame  level. 


282  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

per  cent.  1,000  gal.  of  juice  containing  12  oz.  of  acid  per  gallon  at  7  to  I 
concentration  would,  on  the  basis  of  £18  los.  per  pipe,  represent  a  net  value 
of  £21  3^.  4d.,  which  he  arrived  at  as  follows : 

1,000  gal.  X  I2  oz-  =  12,000 

Less  loss  6.9  per  cent  =      828         11,172 


Less  4^  per  cent  trade  allowance1. . . .  503 


10,669  oz- 
10.669  X  £J8  ioj. 
=  £28  us.  id. 


6,912 

Charges,  etc.    Discount  2^2  per  cent. 

commission  2^2  per  cent,  brokerage  I  per  cent, 
insurance  ^  per  cent,  analysis,  say  y%  per  cent. 

Total,  6y2  per  cent £i     i?s.    id. 

Freight  on  143  gal.  at  2^  d i      9     10 

Dock  dues  and  rents,  say, 
three  farthings  per  gallon 8     n          3     15     10 


Net  proceeds  on  a/c  sale 24    15      3 

Local  charges,  5^2 d.  per  gallon,  made  up  of: 
package  $d.  per  gallon 
export  duty  i^d. 
freight,  boatage,  and  cartage  id.  per  gallon  357 


£21      9      8 

On  the  same  basis  1,000  gallons  of  juice  at 

7  to  i  concentration  would  represent £21  9  8 

8  to  i  concentration  would  represent 21  17  2 

9  to  i  concentration  would  represent 21  19  2 

10  to  i  concentration  would  represent 21  17  o 

The  average  acidity  of  raw  juice,  which  was  tested  from  day  to  day 
throughout  the  crop,  was  12.76  oz.  per  gallon.  The  foregoing  calculations 
are  based  on  the  acidity  of  12  oz.,  which  would  allow  for  acid  removed  in 
the  sludge,  for  small  mechanical  losses  occurring  between  storage  tank  and 
coppers,  and  for  transit  losses,  leakage  and  soakage. 

The  correctness  of  the  results  obtained  was  strikingly  shown  by  a  com- 
parison of  the  estimated  value  of  the  juice  used  in  the  experiments,  as  cal- 
culated on  the  basis  of  the  foregoing  figures,  with  the  amount  actually 
realized  by  the  sale  of  the  produce  in  London ;  the  difference  for  the  entire 
crop  was  under  i  per  cent.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  difference  in  value  be- 
tween concentrations  at  8  to  i  and  9  to  i,  and  between  those  at  9  to  I  and 

*A  trade  allowance  of  4^2  per  cent  is  made  by  the  analysts  in  all  transactions 
relating  to  lime  or  lemon  juice  whether  in  the  form  of  concentrated  juice  or  citrate 
of  lime,  and  is  said  to  be  for  organic  acids  other  than  citric  acid  contained  in  the 
juice.  This  does  not  appear  on  the  account  sales. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,  VOL.  VI,   PART  II,   PLATE  XI. 


(Bulletin  of  the  Pan-American  Union) 


WEIGHING  BITTER  ORANGE  LEAVES  DELIVERED  BY  THE  GATHERERS 
AT  A  PARAGUAYAN   FACTORY. 


(Bulletin  of  the  Pan- American  Union) 

A  LOAD  OF  BITTER  ORANGE  LEAVES  ON   ROAD  TO  AN  OIL  OF  PETITGRAIN  FACTORY. 


LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION  283 

10  to  i  amount  to  less  than  one-half  of  i  per  cent  in  either  case — a  difference 
which  is  well  within  the  limit  of  variation  in  losses  in  open-fire  concentration. 
In  Maclntyre's  earlier  experiments  it  was  clearly  brought  out  that  variations 
up  to  2  per  cent  were  to  be  expected  between  the  results  of  concentrations 
with  very  high  fire  and  those  with  slow  fire.  Under  exceptional  circum- 
stances he  recorded  losses  as  low  as  4  per  cent  at  7.5  to  i  concentration,  and 
as  low  as  6.5  per  cent  at  9.5  to  i  concentration ;  but  in  both  these  cases,  as 
the  fire  was  kept  very  low,  the  concentration  took  nearly  twice  the  time 
usually  occupied  in  the  process,  and  the  juice  was  allowed  to  cool  thoroughly 
in  the  copper  before  striking. 

It  follows  from  the  foregoing  that  the  precise  point  to  which  concen- 
tration is  carried  is  not  very  material  between  the  limits  of  8  to  I  and  10  to  I 
concentration,  but  there  would  be  some  advantage  in  the  items  of  fuel  and 
labor  in  favor  of  the  lower  degree  of  concentration.  Above  10  to  I  the  line 
of  loss  seems  to  rise  very  sharply.  Throughout  these  experiments  he  took 
careful  note  of  the  acid  lost  in  the  sludge  removed  from  the  filter  bags  and 
ascertained  that  the  loss  was  about  3  per  cent  of  total  acid  when  forty-eight 
hours  had  been  allowed  for  thorough  drainage  of  the  bags,  and  from  3^4 
per  cent  to  4  per  cent  when  only  twenty-four  hours  had  been  allowed  for 
draining.  After  thorough  draining  the  stuff  remaining  in  the  bags  is  a  thick, 
gummy  mass,  which  contains  a  considerable  quantity  of  acid.  Repeated  tests 
have  shown  that  where  the  clear  juice  (distilled  juice)  has  been  tested  14.5 
oz.  per  gallon,  the  sludge  after  thorough  draining  would  test  from  12  to  12.5 
oz.  It  would  be  possible  to  recover  most  of  this  acid  by  washing  over  a  finely 
perforated  sheet-metal  strainer,  but  most  of  the  gum  would  then  return  to 
the  juice  in  solution  and  probably  have  a  prejudicial  effect  on  the  quality  of 
the  concentrated  juice,  besides  adding  appreciably  to  the  quantity  of  liquid 
to  be  evaporated.  It  could  only  be  satisfactorily  dealt  with  if  citrate  were 
being  made  when  neither  of  the  foregoing  objections  would  apply.  The  total 
loss  of  acid,  then,  under  conditions  of  careful  supervision,  and  concentrating 
to  the  most  economical  point,  is  about  13  per  cent. 

This  on  a  crop  of  10,000  barrels  of  limes  (say,  85,000  gal.)  would  amount 
to  about  240  lb.,  with  lime  juice  at  £18  los.  per  pipe.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind,  however,  that  in  no  process  of  manufacture  is  it  possible  entirely  to 
eliminate  loss.  The  loss  of  acid  in  steam  concentration  in  jacketed  pans 
is  stated  on  good  authority  to  be  about  3  per  cent  at  9  to  I  concentration,  to 
which  must  be  added  loss  from  filters  or  skimmings — the  latter  probably 
amounting  to  more  than  the  loss  from  filters.  Where  filters  are  used,  skim- 
ming becomes,  to  a  great  extent,  unnecessary. 

In  making  citrate  of  lime,  the  loss  of  acid,  Messrs.  Ogston  and  Moore 
say,  should  not  exceed  2  per  cent,  and  it  is  possible  to  recover  most  of  the 
acid  which  is  lost  in  filter  sludge  when  concentrating.  The  chief  advantages 
of  citrate-making  over  the  concentrated  process  are:  (i)  a  minimum  of  loss 
in  manufacture;  (2)  the  relatively  higher  price  usually  obtained  for  the 
product;1  (3)  the  great  rapidity  with  which  large  quantities  of  juice  can  be 

*This  is  not  invariably  the  case.  In  October-November,  1911,  citrate  was 
selling  at  the  price  fixed  by  the  Camera,  £20  5s.,  while,  owing  to  the  difficulty  of 
getting  forward  supplies  from  Sicily,  the  price  of  concentrated  lime  juice  advanced 
to  £20  12s.  6d. 


284 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Id 
I 

s 

W 

E 

X 

W 

I 


9  8 
<  * 


CITROMETER 
DEGREE 
(APPROXI- 
MATE) 

10  O  ^*-co  oo  O  O  P« 

u  u  2 
w  z 

oooooooo 

W    11  OO    IOOO    >H    N    O* 

S°" 

i>-o6  06  o\  ON  6  d  d 

M  M  4H 

.M 

0   <*  tOO  0   rj-  N   f. 

Z 
O 
H 

fl 

U        O 

CL,     H 

1^*00     Q\   O     hH     ^^     f*^  GO 
M     M     M     M 

ICENTRA 

1 
u 

00   O   M  CO   co  ^i-vO   O 
\rt  O  O   ^"*  ^*^O  t1^  O 

s 

o 
z 

O 

MNNNNNN«O 

! 

afe 

<  "So 

O  O  ^W   toto*OCS 
>t   Tf  O   to  >O  >O  tOO 
"I    Ov  to  to  t^  M   tooo 

o" 

N  N  «  «  M  $  C«'9 

H 
U 

h 

«*M     ThtO«     N     tO  >0 

D 
1-1 

Oo 

O  o\o  to  <o  r^oo  to 

OOOOO^OOOO" 

a 
u 

|i 

B 

z 

H 
O 

Z 

o 
u 

Gallons 

1O               »O 
M          1/5  f« 

"a  o  a<3J5 

*8S4I«g 

H,  cd  N     cj 

'S' 

H 

44 

OO    'i-  to  CS    <->    ON  ONCO 

i 

Q 

<l  oii 
U 

C?C?C?f?C??l    N"« 

D 

1=3 

O   *O  ON  O          t^  ^}"  C< 
M    WOO    O    l^uotOO 

•-1 

^o 

Tj-TJ-tO'J-tOtO'i-tO 

y 
3 

!& 

c 

OOOOOOOO 
oooooooooooooo  ON 

o 

LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION 


285 


dealt  with;  (4)  saving  of  transit  losses;  (5)  a  saving  in  the  cost  of  pack- 
ages, against  which,  however,  must  be  set  the  cost  of  chalk,  and  when  work- 
ing on  a  small  scale,  the  somewhat  greater  cost  of  manufacture. 

NOTE   BY   WATTS   ON    MAC  INTYRE's  EXPERIMENTS   IN 
LIME  JUICE   CONCENTRATION 

The  degree  of  concentration  may  be  measured  by  the  quantity  of  acid  in 
the  concentrated  juice,  and  if  we  take  into  consideration  the  loss  of  acid 
experienced  on  concentrating  to  different  degrees,  we  may  correlate  this 
with  the  rate  of  concentration  in  respect  of  the  original  juice. 

In  Table  LIV  the  losses  in  concentration  are  taken  at  convenient  ap- 
proximations based  on  the  results  of  Maclntyre's  determinations,  and  there 
is  shown  (i)  the  degree  of  concentration  in  relation  to  the  raw  juice,  on  the 
basis  (a)  of  12  oz.  and  (&)  of  14  oz.  of  acid  per  gallon;  (2)  the  approximate 
loss  of  citric  per  cent;  and  (3)  the  approximate  number  of  ounces  of  acid 
in  a  gallon  of  concentrated  juice,  after  allowing  for  the  distribution  of  acid 
in  concentrating. 

TABLE  LIV 


DEGREE  OF  CONCENTRATION 

Approximate 
Loss  of  Acid  in 
Concentrating 

Approximate 
Ounces  of  Acid 
per  Gallon  of 
Concentrated  Juice 

On  Basis  of  12  Oz. 
per  Gallon 

On  Basis  of  14  Oz. 
per  Gallon 

7i:i 

6.0:i 

7 

78 

8:1 

6.8:1 

8 

88 

9:1 

7.7:1 

9-5 

98 

10:1 

8.6:1 

ii 

107 

11:1 

9.4:1 

13-5 

114 

12:1 

10.3:1 

16 

121 

12.5:1 

10.7:1 

18 

123 

From  this  latter  it  will  be  seen,  for  example,  that  a  concentration  which 
Maclntyre  refers  to  as  10  to  I  on  the  basis  of  juice  containing  12  oz.  of  acid 
per  gallon  is  equal  to  8.6  to  I  if  the  juice  contains  14  oz.  of  acid  per  gallon 
— a  point  to  be  kept  in  mind  in  practice. 

The  calculations  made  by  Maclntyre  with  regard  to  the  effect  of  the 
concentration  on  the  charges  for  packages,  freight,  duty,  etc.,  are  very  imr 
portant.  It  is  obvious,  however,  that  as  some  of  the  charges  on  shipment 
are  based  on  the  value  of  the  juice,  the  net  value  of  the  product  and  the  gains 
or  losses  consequent  on  concentratitng  to  various  degrees  will  depend  upon 
the  market  value.  The  calculations  have,  therefore,  been  worked  out  to  show 
the  net  value  of  a  quantity  of  concentrated  juice  resulting  from  the  concen- 
tration of  a  quantity  of  raw  juice  equivalent  to  12,000  oz.  of  acid  when  the 
value  of  concentrated  juice  is  (a)  £18  los.  and  (b)  £15  per  pipe,  charges  de- 
ducted as  the  cost  on  packing  and  shipping  being  based  on  those  given  by 
Maclntyre. 


286 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


From  Table  LV  it  is  seen  that  the  diminished  cost  of  packages,  freight, 
and  other  charges  consequent  on  higher  concentration  offsets  the  loss  of 
acid  in  such  a  way  that  the  best  financial  results  are  obtained  when  the  con- 
centrated juice  has  an  acid  content  of  approximately  98  oz.  per  gallon  when 
the  market  value  is  £18  los.  per  pipe,  or  an  acid  content  of  approximately 
107  oz.  per  gallon  when  the  value  is  £15. 

For  all  practical  purposes,  it  appears  sufficient  to  say  that  the  best  finan- 
cial results  are  obtained,  under  the  conditions  laid  down  by  Maclntyre,  when 
the  concentration  is  carried  to  approximately  100  oz.  of  acid  per  gallon. 

Planters  now  test  their  own  lime  juice  in  the  boiling-house  and  thereby 
save  a  considerable  destruction  of  citric  acid  during  concentration,  by  means 
of  a  citrometer  or  an  ordinary  specific  gravity  hydrometer.  A  description  of 
a  scale  prepared  by  Dr.  Francis  Watts  for  use  in  ascertaining  the  strengths 
of  solutions  of  citric  acid  and  of  lime  juice  by  means  of  a  hydrometer  will 
be  found  in  the  West  Indian  Bulletin  (V,  236-40),  while  a  similar  hy- 
drometer method  is  described  in  the  Agricultural  News  (VI,  149).  The 
following  extracts  are  taken  from  these  articles : 

In  preparing  concentrated  lime  juice  the  concentration  should  be  carried 
on  until  a  citrometer  floating  in  the  hot  juice  (at  boiling  heat)  indicates  a 
density  of  60°. 

TABLE  LV 


DEGREE  OF  CONCENTRATION 

ACID,  OUNCES 
PER  GALLON  IN 
CONCENTRATED 
JUICE 

NET  VALUE*  AFTER  CONCEN- 
TRATION OF  12,000  OUNCES. 
WHEN  VALUE  OP  i  PIPE  OF 
CONCENTRATED  JUICE  Is 

Basis  12  Oz. 
per  Gallon 

Basis  14  Oz. 
per  Gallon 

£18       10       o 

£15        o       o 

7:i 

6.0:1 

78 

29        9        2 

16       7       3 

8:1 

6.8:1 

88 

21      16       6 

16     16     10 

9:1 

7.7:1 

98 

21        18          I 

16     19     10 

10:1 

8.6  :i 

107 

21      17       7 

1710 

11:1 

9.4:1 

114 

21         911 

16     16       o 

12:1 

10.3:2 

121 

21          O       II 

19       9     10 

*  The  slight  differences  between  the  figures  in  this  column  and  those  given  by  Maclntyre  are  due  to 
the  use  of  approximations  for  loss  on  concentrating  given  in  Table  LIV. 

As  the  citrometer  is  an  instrument  but  little  known,  difficulty  has  at 
times  been  experienced  in  procuring  it.  Its  use,  however,  can  be  dispensed 
with,  and  an  ordinary  specific  gravity  hydrometer,  the  nature  of  which  is 
universally  understood,  can  be  substituted,  by  making  use  of  the  fact  that 
60  on  the  citrometer  is  equivalent  to  1.243  on  a  specific  gravity  hydrometer. 

In  this  connection  the  following  scale  may  be  useful : 

50°  citrometer  =1.202  specific  gravity  54°  citrometer  =1.2 19  specific  gravity 

51°  citrometer  =1.207  specific  gravity  55°  citrometer  =1.223  specific  gravity 

52°  citrometer  =1.21 1  specific  gravity  56°  citrometer  =1.227  specific  gravity 

53°  citrometer=i.2i5  specific  gravity  57°  citrometer  =1.231  specific  gravity 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.  BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XII. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

PURIFICATION  OF  PETITGRAIN  OIL. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

DISTILLATION  OF  PETITGRAIN  OIL  IN   PARAGUAY. 


LIME  JUICE  CONCENTRATION  287 

58°  citrometer  =1.235  specific  gravity  61°  citrometer=  1.248  specific  gravity 
59°  citrometer  =1.239  specific  gravity  62°  citrometer  =1.256  specific  gravity 
60°  citrometer  =1.243  specific  gravity  63°  citrometer =1.260  specific  gravity 

Suitable  specific  gravity  hydrometers  graduated  from  1.200  to  1.300  spe- 
cific gravity  can  be  obtained  from  makers  of  scientific  instruments  at  a  cost 
of  about  2s.  each. 

Lime  juice  for  concentration  should,  when  leaving  the  mill,  be  care- 
fully strained  in  order  to  remove  all  the  seeds,  before  it  is  run  into  vats. 
From  the  vats  it  is  run  into  the  still  to  obtain  the  oil,  and  afterwards  to 
the  tayches  to  be  concentrated. 

It  has  lately  been  shown  (West  Indian  Bulletin,  VIII,  171)  that  lime 
juice,  carefully  strained,  and  then  settled  after  distillation,  has  obtained 
a  special  market,  and  commands  higher  prices  than  ordinary  concentrated 
juice.  Every  effort,  therefore,  should  be  made  by  planters  to  ship  a  high- 
class  product. 

The  juice  is  shipped  to  New  York  or  London  in  hogsheads  of  52  gal., 
where  it  is  tested  and  paid  for  according  to  the  citric  acid  contents. 

Buyers  in  London  and  New  York  pay  for  citric  acid,  and  not  for 
impurities  in  the  juice.  The  presence  of  the  latter  causes  great  trouble 
to  manufacturers  of  citric  acid,  and  tends  to  bring  prices  down.  Lime 
juice  should,  therefore,  never  be  concentrated  in  iron  tayches,  as  the  iron 
combines  with  it  and  lowers  the  value  of  the  product. 

Concentrated  juice  testing  100  to  105  oz.  per  gallon  made  of  well- 
strained  and  carefully  settled  lime  juice  is  a  black  and  heavy,  but  not  a 
dense,  liquid.  When  no  care  is  taken  to  strain  or  settle  the  juice,  the 
product  is  black,  and  as  thick  as  molasses  in  the  same  degree  of  concen- 
tration. 

CONCENTRATING  LIME  JUICE  BY  FREEZING1 

An  interesting  piece  of  investigation,  which  may  lead  to  results  of 
practical  importance,  has  been  carried  out  by  the  Agricultural  Depart- 
ment, in  Dominica.  During  1915-16,  the  Commissioner  of  Agriculture 
for  the  'West  Indies  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  Dominica  department 
an  interesting  article  on  the  concentration  of  cider  by  freezing,  which  ap- 
peared in  the  Year  Book  of  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
for  1914.  In  this  experiment  it  was  shown  that  it  was  possible  to  con- 
centrate cider  by  this  process  to  one-fifth  of  its  bulk  without  altering  its 
properties  as  a  beverage. 

It  was  suggested  that  experiments  be  conducted  to  determine  the 
behavior  of  raw  lime  juice  when  treated  in  a  similar  manner.  It  is  ob- 

*See  also  pp.  121-28. 


288  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

vious  that  if  raw  lime  juice,  which  is  shipped  for  cordial  purposes,  could 
be  concentrated  without  changing  its  essential  properties,  there  would  be 
a  very  considerable  saving  in  freight,  packages,  and  other  charges. 

The  phenomenon  that  solids  can  be  concentrated  by  freezing  the  liquid 
and  removing  a  portion  of  the  ice  formed  has  been  known  for  a  long 
time,  and  in  the  reverse  way  this  has  often  been  made  use  of  in  obtaining 
drinkable  water  from  sea-water.  In  this  case  it  is  the  frozen  portion 
which  is  saved,  the  amount  of  sodium  chloride  which  it  contains  being  so 
small  as  to  make  it  moderately  drinkable. 

Numerous  experiments  were  conducted  during  1915-16  to  ascertain 
how  lime  juice  behaves  on  freezing,  and  the  results  obtained  are  discussed 
in  the  Report  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  Dominica,  for  1915—16. 

The  raw  lime  juice  throughout  the  experiments  was  placed  in  a  recep- 
tacle of  block  tin  or  a  glass  jar,  which  was  packed  round  with  a  freezing 
mixture  of  salt  and  ice,  which  reaches  a  temperature  of  between  — 5°  and 
—  io°C.  In  a  short  time  the  juice  becomes  cooled  to  a  temperature  of  be- 
tween i°  and  2°C.  Shortly  after  it  will  be  found  that  ice  has  separated  on 
the  side  of  the  jar,  and  on  continuing  the  process  this  layer  gradually  thickens 
until  later  a  core  of  juice  remains  and  finally  a  solid  mass  is  formed. 

The  sides  of  the  receptacle  are  now  warmed,  and  this  solid  mass  slips  out 
on  to  a  basin  where  it  is  cut  up  with  a  knife  into  pieces  of  suitable  size  to 
enable  their  being  readily  placed  inside  the  basket  of  the  centrifugal  machine. 

The  centrifugal  is  whirled  round  for  a  few  minutes,  and  throughout  these 
experiments  the  whole  was  melted  in  stages  of  known  volumes. 

The  capacity  of  the  centrifugal  machine  was  such  that  only  500  c.c.  of 
juice  could  be  conveniently  handled. 

The  general  conclusions  arrived  at  are  given  in  the  Report,  and  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Raw  lime  juice  when  frozen  and  treated  in  the  centrifugal  can  be 
concentrated  without  affecting  its  properties  as  a  beverage. 

2.  If  the  juice  is  treated  once  only,  the  acid  content  may  be  increased 
from  about  13  oz.  per  gallon  to  over  20  oz.  per  gallon. 

3.  If  this  be  refrozen  a  juice  containing  30  oz.  per  gallon  can  be 
obtained. 

4.  The  low  testing  juices  can  be  converted  into  citrate  of  lime,  thus 
eliminating  all  losses  excepting  those  of  handling. 

5.  This  process  enables  a  very  considerable  saving  to  be  made  in 
freight,  charges,  and  packages,  amounting  to  between  40  and  60  per  cent 
the  actual  amount  depending  on  whether  the  juice  is  frozen  once  or  twice. 

ROLLINGS'  METHOD  OF  CONCENTRATING  LIME  JUICE  BY  FREEZING 

With  reference  to  the  note  which  appeared  in  the  Agricultural  News 
of  November  18,  1916,  on  page  379,  under  the  foregoing  heading,  de- 


CALCIUM  CITRATE  PREPARATION  289 

scribing  the  results  of  experiments  with  lime  juice  in  Dominica,  J. 
Spencer-Hollings  gave  an  account  of  an  interesting  experiment  made 
by  him  in  connection  with  the  same  idea  many  years  ago. 

This  apparatus  employed  in  this  experiment  was  one  of  Carres'  ice 
machines.  This  proved  a  much  more  rapid  and  effective  means  of  con- 
centrating than  by  freezing  only.  The  liquid  to  be  concentrated  in  this 
machine  is  kept  in  vacuo  by  an  air  pump,  and  is  also  in  direct  communi- 
cation with  a  chamber  of  sulphuric  acid,  which  absorbs  the  vapor  as  soon 
as  it  is  produced ;  and  not  only  does  it  do  this,  but  owing  to  the  vacuum 
that  is  produced  by  the  air  pump,  the  liquid  as  it  approaches  freezing 
point  assumes  a  condition  of  ebullition,  which  greatly  accelerates  the  con- 
centration. The  resulting  concentrated  juice,  not  having  been  warmed, 
still  retained  the  color  and  appearance  of  freshly  squeezed  lime  juice,  and 
as  thick  as  the  dark-brown  product  now  made.  When  diluted  with  water, 
it  had  all  the  flavor  of  the  fresh  lime,  and  made  an  excellent  beverage. 
Mr.  Rollings  states  that  after  a  lapse  of  at  least  two  years  he  re-examined 
the  cordial  and  found  it  still  retained  its  characteristics. 

CALCIUM  CITRATE  PREPARATION1 

The  preparation  of  citrate  of  lime  is  the  first  step  in  the  manufacture 
of  citric  acid  from  lemon  or  lime  juice.  We  are  well  aware  that  when  the 
juice  of  the  sugar  cane  is  concentrated  to  a  sufficient  degree,  the  active 
principle,  cane  sugar,  separates  out  in  the  form  of  crystals;  the  active 
principle  of  lemon  or  lime  juice,  citric  acid,  will  not  separate  in  a  crystal- 
line form  when  the  juice  is  simply  concentrated,  owing  to  the  presence  in 
the  juice  of  a  large  quantity  of  gummy  or  pectic  impurities.  In  order  to 
overcome  this  difficulty  the  citric  acid  is  brought  into  combination  with 
lime;  the  citrate  of  lime  thus  formed,  being  insoluble  in  water,  can  be 
separated  from  the  gummy  matters  which  remain  dissolved.  In  order  to 
effect  this  the  juice  is  neutralized  with  chalk,  the  resulting  citrate  of 
lime  is  allowed  to  subside  and  finally  separated  by  straining  by  means  of 
linen  or  canvas.  The  resulting  citrate  may  now  be  dried  for  shipment 
or  be  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  for  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid. 

Simple  as  the  foregoing  process  appears,  there  are  many  practical 
difficulties,  particularly  in  the  preparation  of  the  dried  citrate  for  export. 

In  the  first  place  the  chalk  employed  must  be  of  very  fine  quality, 
free  from  magnesium  salts  and  from  more  than  a  trace  of  iron,  alumina, 
and  phosphates.  Either  of  these  impurities  exercises  a  prejudicial  action 
at  one  or  another  stage  of  the  manufacturing  process.  Again,  the  chalk 

*For  detailed  process,  see  pp.  250-51 ;  see  also  pp.  149-50,  325-26. 


290  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

must  be  of  such  a  quality  that  it  can  be  readily  mixed  into  a  cream  with 
water ;  it  must  be  free  from  lumps.  In  order  to  obtain  chalk  of  proper 
quality  English  or  French  levigated  whiting  was  for  a  long  time  im- 
ported into  Italy  and  Sicily  for  the  preparation  of  citrate  of  lime;  for 
the  West  Indies,  Watts  believes  suitable  material  is  to  be  found  closer  at 
hand.  The  use  of  slaked  lime  suggests  itself.  This  substance  occurs  in 
the  form  of  a  fine  powder,  easily  mixed  with  water  and  can  be  obtained 
in  a  state  of  great  purity.  In  default  of  other  sources  of  supply,  coral 
may  be  used  and  will  yield  lime  containing  a  negligible  amount  of  im- 
purity. Analyses  of  several  kinds  of  coral  showed  carbonate  of  lime 
95.37  to  98.07  per  cent,  phosphate  of  lime  .32  to  .84  per  cent,  organic 
matter  1.93  to  3.79  per  cent. 

Should  slaked  lime  be  used,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  neutralize  the 
juice  completely  or  impurities  will  be  precipitated  with  the  citrate,  and 
these  impurities  will  interfere  with  the  subsequent  manipulation  and  the 
production  of  citric  acid ;  where  slaked  lime  has  to  be  employed  it  would 
appear  desirable  to  complete  the  neutralization  with  chalk,  using  the  lime 
only  for  the  neutralization  of  the  greater  part  of  the  acid. 

In  producing  citrate  of  lime,  the  lime  or  lemon  juice  is  placed  in  a 
suitable  mixing  vessel,  large  enough  to  prevent  loss  from  overflow  from 
the  foaming  effervescence  which  takes  place  when  chalk  is  added.  A 
sufficient  quantity  of  chalk  is  made  into  a  cream  with  water  and  the  mix- 
ture poured  cautiously  as  the  acid  is  neutralized.  There  is  some  difficulty 
in  ascertaining  when  the  exact  point  of  neutralization  is  arrived  at,  for 
in  the  presence  of  certain  impurities,  notably  phosphate  of  iron,  the  juice 
remains  acid  although  an  excess  of  chalk  may  have  been  added.  To  ascer- 
tain how  much  chalk  is  to  be  used,  it  is  best  to  proceed  as  follows :  when 
the  greater  part  of  the  chalk  has  been  added,  the  mixture  is  well  stirred 
and  the  effervescence  is  allowed  to  subside,  a  small  quantity  is  then  taken 
out  and  tested  by  the  addition  of  a  little  of  the  mixture  of  chalk  and 
water;  if  this  produces  an  effervescence,  more  chalk  must  be  added  to 
the  main  quantity,  proceeding  cautiously  and  testing  at  intervals,  until 
no  effervescence  is  produced.  A  further  test  is  now  made:  a  little  of 
the  mixture  is  withdrawn  and  heated ;  as  soon  as  bubbles  of  gas  cease  to 
be  given  off,  a  few  drops  of  acid,  fresh  lime  juice  will  answer,  are  added ; 
this  will  produce  a  slight  effervescence  if  chalk  has  been  added  in  right 
amount,  and  a  brisk  effervescence  if  too  much  has  been  used.  In  the 
latter  case,  more  juice  must  be  added  to  the  mixture  and  the  process  of 
testing  repeated. 

Having  added  the  correct  quantity  of  chalk  it  is  desirable  to  heat  the 
mixture  for  a  few  minutes  nearly  to  the  boiling-point,  but  actual  boiling 


CALCIUM  CITRATE  PREPARATION  291 

is  not  necessary ;  this  causes  the  citrate  of  lime  to  become  crystalline  and 
to  subside  rapidly  in  a  condition  in  which  it  is  easily  manipulated. 

In  the  earlier  attempts  to  prepare  this  substance  the  heating  at  this 
state  was  omitted,  the  juice  was  neutralized,  and  the  citrate  of  lime  was 
separated  from  the  cold  liquor  and  dried.  In  consequence  of  this  method 
of  working,  the  finished  citrate  contained  many  impurities,  it  dried  in  the 
form  of  hard  lumps  or  a  powder  full  of  hard  knobs  so  that  grinding  had 
to  be  suggested,  it  was  difficult  to  powder  and  when  thrown  into  water 
it  was  wetted  with  difficulty  so  that  the  manufacturer  had  difficulty  in 
acting  upon  it  with  sulphuric  acid  when  converting  it  into  citric  acid. 
Owing  to  the  presence  of  impurities  the  citrate  often  became  dark  on 
drying,  and  yielded  a  dark-colored  liquor  in  the  citric  acid  factory,  a 
liquor  which  filtered  with  difficulty.  All  these  features  were  very  ob- 
jectionable to  the  citric  acid  maker,  and  led  him  to  prefer  concentrated 
juice  to  citrate  of  lime  as  his  raw  material.  Heating,  by  rendering  the 
citrate  crystalline,  permits  of  its  purification,  and  many  of  the  impurities 
are  removed  with  the  water  and  can  be  easily  washed  away.  It  seems 
very  important  that  heat  should  be  used  at  this  stage ;  it  is  probably  due 
to  its  omission  that  the  earlier  experimenters  with  citrate  of  lime  en- 
countered so  many  difficulties. 

As  soon  as  the  citrate  is  seen  to  become  crystalline  and  to  subside 
rapidly  the  heating  is  stopped,  the  citrate  quickly  settles,  leaving  a  clear 
yellow  liquid  above ;  this  liquid  is  poured  off  or  syphoned  off,  as  much 
water  being  removed  as  possible.  Washing  the  citrate  a  few  times  with 
hot  water  is  advantageous ;  this  removed  the  gummy  matters  which  cause 
the  citrate  to  cake  into  lumps  in  drying  and  which  may  give  rise  to 
darkening  in  color  and  the  subsequent  production  of  dark  and  trouble- 
some citric  liquors  in  the  manufacture  of  acid.  The  earlier  samples  of 
citrate  contained  so  much  impurity  and  were  so  difficult  to  manipulate 
that  they  found  little  favor  with  manufacturers. 

The  method  of  dealing  with  the  citrate  at  the  next  stage  of  the 
process  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  scale  upon  which  the  manufacture 
is  conducted.  When  the  operation  is  conducted  on  a  small  experimental 
scale,  the  citrate  may  be  thrown  upon  a  stout  cloth  supported  on  a  sieve 
or  strainer ;  as  soon  as  the  water  has  drained  away,  the  residue  is  tied  or 
folded  securely  in  the  cloth  and  submitted  to  pressure,  to  remove  as  much 
water  as  can  be  thus  got  rid  of. 

When  a  large  quantity  of  citrate  is  made,  a  filter  such  as  is  used  in 
citric  acid  works  may  be  employed.  This  consists  of  a  deal  floor  with 
boards  round  the  edge;  the  floor  has  i-in.  splines  nailed  on  i-in.  apart, 
and  canvas  (36  in.  "forfar")  is  stretched  on  the  splines;  a  convenient 


292  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

size  is  16  ft.  X  12  ft.  X  I  ft.  deep.  It  should  be  slightly  tilted,  and  exit 
holes  provided  (Grosjean).  The  citrate  is  allowed  to  drain  upon  the 
filter;  when  draining  ceases  the  substance  is  put  into  canvas  bags  and 
submitted  to  pressure. 

On  a  large  scale  it  will  be  found  more  convenient  to  use  filter  presses ; 
by  their  use  the  combined  operations  of  filtering  and  pressing  can  be 
expeditiously  performed,  a  great  saving  of  time  and  labor  can  be  thus 
effected,  while  the  factory  can  be  rendered  much  more  compact  owing  to 
the  small  area  occupied  by  the  filter  presses  as  compared  with  the  space 
required  for  filters  and  the  presses  for  the  bags. 

After  as  much  water  as  possible  has  been  pressed  from  the  citrate  by 
whatever  process  is  adopted,  it  has  to  be  dried.  This  part  of  the  process 
demands  great  care,  and  is  attended  by  considerable  risk  of  loss ;  there  is 
great  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  citrate,  when  in  a  damp  state,  to  fer- 
ment ;  as  a  result  of  this  fermentation,  the  citric  acid  is  destroyed  and 
carbonate  of  lime,  the  original  chalk  from  which  the  manufacture  started, 
is  left ;  there  is  little  to  indicate  to  the  eye  that  this  f ermentive  change  is 
taking  place,  so  that  an  unskilled  or  careless  operator  may  find  his  finished 
product  to  contain  no  citrate  of  lime  at  all,  but  to  consist  entirely  of 
chalk.  To  avoid  this  risk  of  loss  it  is  only  necessary  that  the  citrate  of 
lime  should  be  brought  quickly  into  some  form  of  drying  apparatus 
where  a  temperature  of  from  150°  to  200°  F.  (66°  to  93 °C.)  can  be 
maintained,  while  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  free  circulation  of  air 
through  the  drying  chamber  in  order  to  carry  away  the  moisture.  For 
a  long  time  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  satisfactory  and  efficient  drying 
apparatus  was  a  great  stumbling-block ;  the  problem  of  drying  the  citrate 
of  lime  is  very  similar  in  its  nature  to  that  of  drying  fruit,  so  that  a 
good  fruit  drier  will  answer  well  for  experimental  purposes,  while  larger 
forms  of  apparatus,  worked  upon  the  same  principles,  can  be  constructed 
for  use  where  the  manufacture  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale.  Where 
much  work  is  to  be  done  it  would  appear  desirable  to  have  several  sets  of 
drying  apparatus,  so  that  one  lot  of  material  may  be  thoroughly  dried 
before  it  becomes  necessary  to  introduce  fresh,  wet  citrate  into  the 
same  apparatus.  Any  form  of  apparatus  in  which  the  temperature  can 
be  maintained  at  from  150°  to  2OO°F.  or  even  somewhat  higher,  while 
at  the  same  time  permitting  sufficient  ventilation  to  remove  the  moisture 
rapidly,  will  prove  efficient.  It  is  important  to  lay  stress  on  the  venti- 
lation. As  has  been  stated,  the  proper  drying  of  the  citrate  is  of  para- 
mount importance ;  should  it  remain  damp,  or  in  any  way  become  damp 
from  careless  handling,  or  careless  storing,  fermentation  will  speedily 
spoil  the  product. 


SALABILITY  OF  CITRATE  AND  JUICE  293 

Warrington  and  Grosjean  made  an  investigation  of  the  amount  of 
water  remaining  in  citrate  of  lime  dried  at  2I2°F.  (ioo°C.).  They 
found  this  to  range  from  5.90  to  7.68  per  cent.  This  exists  as  water  of 
crystallization;  when  dried  at  392°F.  (2OO°C.)  the  substance  contained 
no  water.  Fermentation  readily  takes  place  if  more  than  12  per  cent  of 
water  is  present;  there  is,  however,  no  danger  of  fermentation  as  soon 
as  the  proportion  of  water  has  been  reduced  to  10  per  cent  but  it  is 
desirable  to  continue  the  drying  until  less  than  that  amount  exists;  if 
the  temperature  of  the  drying  apparatus  cannot  be  raised  above  2I2°F. 
the  product,  as  shown  by  the  investigations  just  referred  to,  may  con- 
tain over  7  per  cent  of  water ;  if,  however,  the  drying  can  be  finished  at 
a  higher  temperature,  say  from  248°  to  3O2°F.  (i2O°-i5o°C.)  the  pro- 
portion of  water  may  be  reduced  to  below  5  per  cent.  Efforts  should  be 
made  to  secure  this  thorough  drying. 

When  prepared  in  the  manner  described,  citrate  of  lime  is  a  white 
powder  free  from  hard  lumps ;  when  thrown  into  water  it  is  easily  wetted 
and  is  readily  diffused  through  the  liquid  on  stirring.  If  kept  in  a  dry 
place  it  will  remain  good  indefinitely.  For  shipment  it  should  be  tightly 
packed  in  paper-lined  barrels.  It  should  contain  over  60  per  cent  of 
citric  acid. 

Warrington  states  that  the  best  sample  of  commercial  citrate  he  has 
met  with  contained  72  per  cent  of  citric  acid,  and  this  is  about  the  highest 
percentage  that  can  be  reached  when  the  citrate  contains  no  excess  of 
chalk  and  has  been  thoroughly  dried. 

SALABILITY  OF  CITRATE  AND  JUICE 

Citrate  of  lime  is  bought  and  sold  on  the  same  basis  as  concentrated 
lemon  and  lime  juice,  namely  on  the  basis  of  citric  acid  contained.  Quo- 
tations are  made  for  the  same  arbitrary  quantity  as  in  the  case  of  con- 
centrated juice.  In  this  case  the  standard  is  the  cask  of  675  Ib.  of  citrate, 
containing  64  per  cent  of  citric  acid,  this  being  equal  to  432  Ib.  of  citric 
acid.  As  to  price,  citrate  sells  at  about  the  same  rate  as  concentrated 
juice,  realizing  a  little  more,  sometimes  a  little  less,  than  that  article. 

From  the  point  of  view  of  the  manufacturer  of  citric  acid,  citrate  of 
lime  possesses  some  advantages  over  concentrated  juice.  It  can  be  'stored 
without  loss,  while  juice  is  liable  to  leak  from  the  casks ;  the  first  stage 
of  the  manufacture  of  the  acid  has  been  already  completed  and  the  manu- 
facturer can  dispense  with  the  neutralizing  vats  and  the  filters;  thus 
there  is  much  economy  of  space  and  labor.  Finally,  owing  to  the  fact 
that  citrate  of  lime  is  white,  while  concentrated  juice  is  black  from  the 
charring  action  of  the  heat  used  in  its  production,  the  resulting  citric 


294  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

liquors  obtained  from  citrate  are  a  better  color,  yielding  whiter  crystals 
of  citric  acid,  thus  reducing  the  operations  of  refining  the  citric  and 
saving  both  labor  and  material. 

Possessing  these  advantages  it  seems  probable  that  citrate  of  lime 
and  citric  acid  will  ultimately  displace  concentrated  juice,  provided  that 
an  article  thoroughly  suited  to  manufacturers'  requirements  is  produced ; 
as  competition  becomes  keener  in  the  production  of  raw  material — and 
this  is  likely  to  ensue  from  the  attention  being  given  to  tropical  products 
and  the  difficulty  experienced  in  finding  new  and  profitable  ones — there 
will  arise  competition  between  these  two  forms  of  raw  material,  when 
the  preference  which  the  manufacturer  of  citric  acid  will  give  to  well- 
prepared  citrate  will  no  doubt  enhance  its  value  in  comparison  with 
concentrated  juice.  Hitherto  the  production  of  citrate  of  lime  has  been 
relatively  small  so  that  competition  between  the  two  forms  of  raw 
material  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  undertake  the  manufacture  of  the  citric  acid 
itself  in  the  countries  where  the  juice  is  produced ;  this  offers  many  ob- 
vious advantages,  but  at  the  same  time  is  beset  by  some  difficulties.  The 
chief  difficulty  would  appear  to  be  a  trading  one;  the  manufacture  of 
citric  acid  is  in  the  hands  of  a  few  firms  against  whose  interests  small 
manufacturers  could  not  contend,  so  that  the  probability  of  citric  acid 
being  made  in  the  countries  producing  the  raw  materials  seems  remote 
unless  the  venture  is  undertaken  on  a  large  scale. 

In  Dominica  it  is  customary  to  carry  the  concentration  of  the  lime 
juice  to  a  higher  degree  than  64  oz.  per  gallon.  Concentrated  juice  from 
this  island  ranges  in  strength  from  105  to  120  oz.  per  gallon,  or  even 
higher.  That  such  a  degree  of  concentration  is  attainable  without  con- 
siderable loss  is  due  to  the  fact  that  juice  of  good  quality  is  used  for 
concentration;  on  many  estates  in  Dominica  the  whole  of  the  juice  ob- 
tained is  concentrated,  whereas  in  some  places  the  finer  qualities  are  ex- 
ported as  raw  juice  while  the  inferior  ones  alone  are  concentrated. 
These  finer  juices  will  contain  larger  proportions  of  acid  in  relation  to 
the  other  soluble  matters  present,  and  therefore,  when  concentrated  to 
a  definite  specific  gravity,  will  contain  more  acid  than  concentrated  juice 
derived  from  raw  juice  of  lower  grade. 

Buyers  point  out  some  defects  of  West  Indian  concentrated  juice; 
one  is  the  presence,  at  times,  of  considerable  quantities  of  pulpy  matter, 
seeds,  and  other  impurities ;  another  defect  lies  in  the  presence  in  some 
samples  of  noticeable  quantities  of  iron. 

Some  buyers  stated  that  they  were  of  the  opinion  better  prices,  both 
for  concentrated  juice  and  for  citrate,  may  be  obtained  if  the  West 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XIII. 


(La  Parfumerie  Modern?) 


HARVESTING  CITRONS  IN  CORSICA. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderns) 


SORTING  CITRONS  IN  CORSICA. 


295 

Indian  trade  were  better  organized,  their  experience  being  that  small 
lots  of  concentrated  juice. appeared  on  the  market  at  somewhat  irregular 
times,  so  that  buyers  were  unable  to  be  on  the  lookout  for,  or  to  depend 
on,  the  arrival  of  West  Indian  supplies.  These  lots  often  arrived  when 
there  was  no  particular  demand  and  after  buyers  had  made  their  con- 
tracts; they,  therefore,  sold  with  difficulty  and  at  lower  prices.  This 
may  be  remedied  by  better  organization,  by  such  methods  as  making 
contracts  beforehand,  by  the  careful  use  of  marks  and  brands,  by  inti- 
mations in  trade  journals  of  the  conditions  of  crops,  their  probable  quan- 
tity, and  the  probable  times  of  arrival  in  the  market. 

It  is  possible  to  make  contracts  for  the  delivery  at  specified  dates  of 
lots  equal  in  size  to  about  25  casks  and  upward  of  concentrated  juice  as 
shipped  from  the  Leeward  Islands.  These  contracts  are  made  from 
about  January  to  April.  It  is  interesting  to  note  that  in  1901  contracts 
were  made  for  Italian  and  Sicilian  supplies  at  about  £17  to  £19  per  pipe, 
while  later  in  the  year  the  market  had  fallen  to  about  £13.  It  seems, 
therefore,  highly  probable  that  better  prices  may  ultimately  be  obtained 
for  West  Indian  juice  by  a  closer  acquaintance  with  British  market  con- 
ditions and  by  the  preparation  of  high-class  products  in  connection  with 
known  marks  and  brands. 

Citrate  must  not  contain  more  than  2  per  cent  of  free  chalk,  a  penalty 
being  imposed  if  this  amount  is  exceeded. 

As  regards  price,  citric  acid,  whether  in  the  form  of  concentrated 
juice  or  of  citrate  of  lime,  has  practically  the  same  market  value.  Citrate 
of  lime  is  quoted  in  terms  of  the  standard  acid;  a  standard  cask 
therefore  contains  430^2  lb.  of  acid.  Concentrated  juice  is  quoted  in 
terms  of  the  pipe  of  108  gal.  containing  64  oz.  of  citric  acid  per  gallon, 
being  equivalent  to  432  lb.  of  acid ;  the  quantities  are  practically  identi- 
cal. At  present  these  two  commodities  command  approximately  equal 
prices,  sometimes  one,  sometimes  the  other,  having  a  slight  advantage. 
Import  duty  is  imposed  on  citrate  entering  France  while  concentrated 
juice  is  admitted  free,  in  consequence  of  which  concentrated  juice  may 
at  times  command  a  slightly  higher  price  in  European  markets.1 

During  1899  prices  ranged  from  £13  to  £20  per  pipe  or  cask;  during 
1900  prices  ranged  from  £13  to  £17  per  pipe  or  cask;  during  1901  prices 
ranged  from  £13  to  £19  per  pipe  or  cask.2 

Under  these  circumstances  the  West  Indian  producer,  in  deciding 
which  article  he  shall  make,  must  ascertain  the  difference  in  cost  of  pro- 
duction and  whether  the  buyers  are  likely,  at  an  early  date,  to  prefer  one 

'See  pp.  352,  353,  362-66. 
'See  pp.  352,  353,  35$,  362,  366. 


296  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

article  to  the  other.  Citrate  is  more  expensive  in  preparation  than  con- 
centrated juice,  the  cost  of  erecting  steam-heating  apparatus  and  drying 
chambers  and  of  importing  and  transporting  lime  or  chalk  will  more 
than  counterbalance  the  saving  of  fuel,  the  reduction  in  cost  of  packages, 
and  the  saving  of  acid  destroyed  in  the  process  of  concentration.  Never- 
theless we  have  the  evidence  afforded  by  Italy  and  Sicily,  the  principal 
sources  of  supply  where  the  production  of  citrate  is  making  steady  head- 
way and  where  the  process  is  found  to  be  better  and  cheaper  than  simple 
concentration.  The  exports  of  both  articles  from  Messina  and  Catania 
have  been  as  follows : 

December  i,  1899,  to  September  30,  1901,  concentrated  juice     1,671  pipes 
Citrate  of  lime  635^  tons 2,085  pipes 


Total   3,756  pipes 

December  i,  1900,  to  September  30,  1901,  concentrated  juice       549  pipes 
Citrate  of  lime  590^  tons l>9^9  pipes 


Total    2,518  pipes 

The  manufacturer  of  citric  acid  will  ultimately  show  a  decided  prefer- 
ence for  citrate  of  lime  and  this  as  soon  as  the  manufacture  of  citrate  in 
Italy  and  Sicily  is  placed  upon  a  sure  footing  so  that  citrate  of  uniform 
and  dependable  quality  comes  steadily  to  market;  when  that  point  is 
reached  citrate  will  begin  to  command  higher  prices  than  concentrated 
juice.  West  Indian  producers  will  then  have  to  produce  citrate  if  they 
wish  to  obtain  the  best  prices  for  their  goods.  This  time  may  not  be 
far  distant,  for  the  experiments  of  the  last  thirty  years  have  removed 
most  of  the  difficulties  which  were  encountered,  while  during  most  of  the 
last  ten  years  the  advance  has  been  very  marked  on  the  commercial  side. 

Table  LVI  is  added  in  order  to  facilitate  calculations  dealing  with 
the  acidity  of  raw  juice.  In  some  places  it  is  customary  to  speak  in 
terms  of  ounces  of  citric  acid  per  gallon  of  juice,  in  others  in  terms  of 
grains  per  ounce, 

WEST  INDIAN   LIME  OILS  EXPRESSED  AND  DISTILLED 

Origin  and  production. — The  lime,  like  the  fruits  of  other  members 
of  the  citrus  family,  contains  essential  oil  in  vacuoles  situated  immedi- 
ately beneath  the  outer  rind  or  skin.  Two  classes  of  lime  oils  are  at 
present  known  to  commerce :  ( i )  the  hand-expressed  oil  or  otto  of  limes ; 
(2)  the  distilled  oil. 

Hand-expressed  oil  is  obtained  by  rapidly  rotating  the  fruit  around 

'See  p.  12. 


LIME  OIL 


297 


the  interior  of  a  copper  bowl,  termed  an  ecuelle  pan,  the  inner  surface  of 
which  is  covered  with  projecting  brass  points.1  The  oil  cells  become 
punctured  and  the  oil,  mixed  with  a  certain  amount  of  watery  fluid  from 
the  skins,  runs  down  into  a  little  well  at  the  bottom  of  the  pan ;  it  is  sub- 
sequently separated  from  the  underlying  layer  of  watery  fluid,  filtered, 
and  stored  in  vessels  ready  for  export. 

The  distilled  oil,  on  the  other  hand,  is  obtained  by  performing  the 
first  stage  of  the  evaporation  of  raw  lime  juice,  in  the  manufacture  of 
concentrated  juice,  in  a  copper  still  and  condensing  the  distillation  prod- 
uct ;  the  steam  passing  over  carries  with  it  the  more  volatile  portion  of 
the  oil,  which  is  collected  in  a  form  of  the  well-known  Florentine  flask. 
In  the  case  of  estates  which  'ship  raw  juice,  the  scum  that  collects  on  the 
juice  in  the  settling  vats  is  alone  distilled. 

TABLE  LVI 

SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  CITRIC  ACID  IN  GRAINS  PER  OUNCE,  EQUIVALENT  TO 
OUNCES  PER  GALLON,  AND  VICE  VERSA 


Ounces  per 
Gallon 

Grains  per 
Ounce 

Grains  per 
Ounce 

Ounces  per 
Gallon 

8 

21.875 

2O 

7.3I4 

8-5 

23.242 

22 

8.045 

9 

24.609 

24 

8-777 

9-5 

25.966 

26 

9.508 

10 

27-344 

28 

10.239 

10.5 

28.711 

30 

10.971 

ii 

30.078 

32 

I  I  .  702 

"•5 

31-445 

34 

12.434 

12 

32.813 

36 

13-165 

12.5 

34.I80 

38 

13.897 

13 

35-547 

40 

14.628 

13.5 

36.9H 

42 

15-359 

14 

38.282 

44 

16.091 

15 

41  .016 

48 

17-554 

15-5 

42-383 

50 

18.285 

16 

A'l    7<o 

16  s 

*ro  •  /  O  w 
4.C    T  17 

*•**>  •  o 
17 

*rO  •  x  *  / 

AjF\     J.8j. 

x  / 
17    1 

f±\J  .  ^t  <-><-}- 
4.7    8^1 

•*•  /  •  o 
18 

T-/  •  *-*3  * 

49.219 

Difference  for 
grains  per  ounce. 


oz.  per  gallon  =  .683 


Difference  for  i  grain  per  ounce : 
.365  oz.  per  gallon. 


The  oil  is  exported  in  either  copper  or  tin  vessels  which  are  packed 
in  boxes.  It  costs  less  to  produce  than  hand-pressed  oil,  but  commands 
a  lower  price. 

Stills  fitted  with  'steam  coils  are  the  best,  but  it  is  only  in  a  very  few 
cases  that  steam  is  available  on  estates. 

The  yield  of  oil  by  distillation  is  from  3  to  5  oz.  per  barrel  of  limes, 
or  taking  80  barrels  of  fruit  to  make  i  hogshead  of  concentrated  juice, 


298  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

from  15  to  25  Ib.  per  hogshead,  according  to  locality  and  conditions  of 
moisture.  A  gallon  of  distilled  oil  weighs  9  Ib. 

The  yield  of  oil  varies  according  to  conditions  of  moisture.  In 
localities  where  the  annual  rainfall  is  from  60  to  100  in.,  the  citric  acid 
content  of  the  juice  of  the  fruit  is  high,  and  the  yield  of  oil  from  the 
rind  of  the  fruit  low.  Where  the  rainfall  is  high — say,  from  130  to  200 
in. — the  citric  acid  content  is  low,  and  the  yield  of  oil  high. 

It  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  distilled  oil  is  derived  from  the  rind 
in  the  same  way  as  the  hand-expressed  oil,  the  oil  cells  becoming  ruptured 
in  the  process  of  milling,  and  the  oil  running  down  with  the  juice. 

It  is  characteristic  of  distilled  oils,  in  contrast  to  the  ecuelled  product, 
that  they  possess  a  somewhat  unpleasant  acrid  smell,  and  their  value  is 
in  consequence  very  much  lower.  This  is  due  to  the  abstraction  of  the 
non-volatile  constituents,  together  with  a  certain  amount  of  decomposi- 
tion arising  from  the  high  temperature. 

The  comparative  paucity  of  information  concerning  the  characteristics, 
chemical  and  physical,  of  hand-expressed  lime  oil  (of  otto  of  limes),  as  well 
as  of  the  distilled  oil  of  limes,  prompted  the  collection  of  a  number  of  sam- 
ples from  Dominica  and  Montserrat  for  purposes  of  examination  in  the 
Government  Laboratory,  Antigua. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  investigation,  seven  samples  of  expressed  oil  and 
three  samples  of  distilled  oil  were  obtained;  these  are  identified  by  letters 
as  follows : 

A Hand-expressed  oil,  Antigua 

B Hand-expressed  oil,  Antigua 

C Hand-expressed  oil,  Montserrat 

D Hand-expressed  oil,  Montserrat 

E Hand-expressed  oil,  Montserrat 

F Hand-expressed  oil,  Dominica 

G Hand-expressed  oil,  Dominica 

H Distilled  oil,  Dominica 

I Distilled  oil,  Dominica 

J Distilled  oil,  Dominica 

With  the  exception  of  samples  A  and  B,  which  were  produced  on  the 
same  estate  but  at  different  times,  the  remaining  samples  of  expressed  oil 
and  distilled  oil  were  produced  on  estates  at  different  points  in  Montserrat 
and  Dominica.  In  every  case  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  authenticity  of  the 
samples,  which  are  all  of  recent  origin. 

On  each  of  the  foregoing  samples  was  determined  ( I )  the  specific  grav- 
ity at  3O°C. ;  (2)  the  optical  rotation  in  a  loo-mm.  tube  (at  3i°C.)  ;  (3)  the 
refractive  index  (at  32° C.)  ;  (4)  the  citral  content  by  Burgess  and  Child's 
method;  (5)  the  acid  value,  by  titration  of  5  c.c.  of  the  oil  dissolved  in  alco- 
hol, with  N/2  alcoholic  potassium  hydroxide  in  the  cold. 

The  results  are  given  in  tabular  form  (Table  LVII). 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY.. 


BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XIV. 


f.V  *?.<**    -  ~*  ->^L_       •'V 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne.    Photograph  by  M.  Gillet) 

WEIGHING  CITRONS  IN  CORSCIA. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne.     Photograph  by  M.  Gillet) 

A  SHIPMENT  OF  CITRONS  AT  BASTIA,   CORSCIA. 


LIME  OIL 


299 


HAND-EXPRESSED  OIL 

Properties  and  composition. — This  oil  is  of  a  golden-yellow  color, 
and  is  hardly  distinguishable  from  a  good  lemon  oil  by  its  odor.  The 
most  important  constituent  is  citral.  It  contains  also  a  paraffin,  limonene, 
and  methyl  anthranilate  and  10  to  18  per  cent  of  non-volatile  residue. 
The  oil  gives  a  cloudy  solution  in  four  to  ten  volumes  of  90  per  cent  al- 
cohol with  separation  of  wax  or  paraffin-like  constituents. 

With  regard  to  the  hand-expressed  oils,  an  examination  of  the  re'sults 
shows  a  somewhat  wider  divergence  between  the  character  of  the  differ- 
ent oils  than  that  indicated  by  figures  given  by  the  various  authorities 
already  quoted,  although  they  are  in  general  agreement  with  them.  The 
figures  for  the  optical  rotation  are  somewhat  lower  than  one  would  ex- 
pect; this  is  probably  partly  accounted  for  by  the  expansion  of  the  oil 
owing  to  the  high  temperature  at  which  its  measurements  were  made; 

TABLE  LVII 


Sample 

Specific 
Gravity 
at  30°C. 

Rotation 
in  Angular 
Degrees  at 
3i°C. 

Refrac- 
tivity  at 
32°  C. 

Citral 
Per  Cent 

Acid 
No. 

Expressed  Oils:* 
A  

31.38 

1.4851 

6.6 

2.8 

B  

•  8859 

31.63 

1-4836 

5.2 

2.7 

C  

.8752 

32.11 

1.4816 

5.2 

2.6 

D  

.8712 

32.80 

1.4809 

2.4 

1.6 

E  

.8740 

32.67 

1-4815 

4.0 

2.04 

F  

.8664 

33.43 

1.4789 

2.4 

1.35 

G  

•8659 

32.94 

1.4789 

2.2 

1.44 

Distilled  Oils:f 
H  

.8540 

34.30 

I-47I3 

2.O 

1.3 

I  

.8858 

34'89 

1.4702 

1-4 

0.76 

J  

•8567 

33-09 

I.47I2 

1.2 

i.i 

*  Density  at  15°  C.  0.878  to  0.901,  mostly  between  0.880  and  0.884 
Rotation  +  32°  50'  to  +  37°  30'  (Schimmel,  October,  1909) 

T  35°        to  +  38°  (Gildemeister  and  Hoffman) 

+  36°        to     40°  (Allen) 

Rotation  of  the  first  10  per  cent  of  the  distillate  rather  higher,  or  at  most  4  per  cent  lower, 
than  that  of  the  original  oil. 

Refractive  index  at  20°  C.  1.482  to  1.486 
Acid  number  up  to  3.0 
Ester  number  18.  to  3.0 

t  Density  0.865  to  0.868  (Gildemeister  and  Hoffman,  temp,  not  given). 
Rotation  +  38°  5z'  (Gildemeister  and  Hoffman,  temp,  not  given). 
T  46°  36'  (Schimmel,  October,  1904) 

possibly  also  the  specific  rotation  of  the  optically  active  constituents  may 
tend  to  decrease  with  rise  of  temperature. 

Citral  and  acid  content. — The  citral  content  and  the  acid  number  vary 
markedly  in  the  different  samples :  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  a  fairly 
close  correlation  appears  to  exist  between  the  two  figures;  subsequent 
investigation,  however,  appears  to  lend  some  color  to  the  view  that  the 
relatively  high  acidity  recorded  in  the  case  of  these  oils  with  a  relatively 


300 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


high  citral  content  may  possibly  have  been  due  in  part  to  interaction  be- 
tween the  aldehyde  and  alcoholic  potassium  hydroxide  used  for  the  titra- 
tion. 

The  citral  determination  by  Burgess'  methods  seems  to  give  satis- 
factory results,  and  the  appearance  of  a  marked  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween the  oil  and  underlying  sodium  sulphate  solution  would  appear  to 
indicate  the  absence  of  citronellal. 

The  citral  content  as  determined  in  this  way  varies  markedly  in  dif- 
ferent sample's.  On  the  whole,  the  citral  content  of  the  hand-expressed 
oil  is  lower  than  is  the  case  with  lemon  oils,  which  according  to  Gilde- 
meister  and  Hoffman  contain  7  to  10  per  cent  of  that  constituent. 

DISTILLED  OIL 

Properties  and  composition. — Distilled  oil  has  an  unpleasant  odor, 
like  turpentine  or  pine  tar  oil,  and  no  longer  reminds  one  of  citral.  Prob- 
ably this  aldehyde  is  completely  destroyed  by  the  boiling  of  the  acid 
liquid.  The  oil  boils  between  175°  and  220°.  The  residue  on  evapora- 
tion is  3  per  cent. 

TABLE  LVIII 


Fraction 

Temperature  (C.) 

Approximate 
Volume  (c.c.) 

Refractive  Index 
at  28°  C. 

I....  

155° 
i55°-i69° 
i69°-i7i° 

ni°-i73l 

I73°-I75° 
I75°-I77° 
i77°-i79o 
i  79°-  i  82° 
i  82°-  i  86° 
1  86°-  1  90° 
i  90°-  i  95° 
i95°-2oo° 

200°-235°    ; 

Tarry       resic 

.ue 

20 
50 

2O 
10 

•4705 
.4708 

•47" 
.4708 
.4709 
.4711 

•4713 
.4719 
.4721 

•4737 
.4742 
I-4736 
1.4890 

2        

4.  ... 

5  .  . 

6  

7  .  . 

8  

10  

II  

12*  

I3t. 

14  

(Refractive  index  of  original  oil  =  1.4770  at  32°  C.) 

*Bluish  liquid. 

tBlue  liquid  filtered  from  crystals  (see  p.  301). 

With  regard  to  the  distilled  oils,  samples  I  and  J  came  from  the  same 
estates  as  samples  F  and  G;  no  corresponding  sample  of  expressed  oil  was 
obtained  from  the  estate  supplying  the  sample  H.  The  samples  appeared 
to  be  characterized,  on  the  whole,  by  a  lower  refractive  index,  citral  content, 
acid  number,  and  in  the  case  of  H  and  I,  a  lower  specific  gravity.  The  rota- 
tion, on  the  other  hand,  is  in  all  cases  somewhat  higher. 

To  obtain  a  certain  amount  of  further  information  regarding  the  dif- 
ferent bodies  of  which  the  oil  is  made  up,  a  sample  of  hand-expressed  oil  was 
subjected  to  fractional  distillation. 


LIME  OIL 


301 


The  original  samples  were  taken  from  sample  G,  and  100  c.c.  taken  for 
the  distillation.  The  temperature,  and  corresponding  approximate  volume  of 
oil  distilled  and  refractive  indices  of  each  of  the  fractions,  are  given  in 
Table  LVIII. 

As  is  seen  from  Table  LVIII  the  greater  portion  of  the  oil  distilled  over 
between  171°  and  177°  C.  It  appears  that  this  fraction  consists  largely  of 
limonine  or  closely  related  bodies.  At  200°  C.  decomposition  set  in  and  the 
distillate  became  slightly  blue,  the  contents  of  the  flask  turning  dark  green. 
As  the  temperature  rose  a  deep-blue  oil  distilled  over,  and  the  green  color 
of  the  liquid  in  the  flask  became  more  intense.  At  235  °C.  the  vapor  was 
also  colored  and  the  distillation  was  discontinued.  About  10  c.c.  of  a  tarry- 
brown  liquid  remained,  which  on  cooling  solidified  to  a  hard,  vitreous,  black 
mass. 

TABLE  LIX 


Fraction 

Temperature 
(C.) 

Approximate  Volume 
(c.c.) 

I  

175° 

I< 

2  

175°  -  178°! 

3  

178°-  182°] 

60 

4.  . 

182°-  186 

5    

186°  -  205°\ 

6  

20S°-24S°J 

20 

7  

Residue 

5 

The  blue  fraction  on  standing  deposited  pale-yellow  crystals  leaving  a 
deep  green  mother-liquor.  These  were  separated,  dried,  and  crystallized 
several  times  from  chloroform.  A  very  light,  faintly  yellow  substance  was 
obtained,  crystallizing  in  fine  needles  and  having  the  melting-point  at  I3I.5°C. 
Its  nitrogen  content  was  determined  and  found  to  be  11.16  per  cent. 

One  hundred  c.c.  of  distilled  oil  from  the  same  estate  was  next  sub- 
jected to  fractional  distillation  in  the  same  way  (Table  LIX). 

TABLE  LX 


Fraction 

Temperature 
(C.) 

Approximate  Volume 
(Per  Cent) 

I  

170° 

19 

2  

170°  -  172° 

30 

3  

172°  -  175° 

25 

A..  . 

175°  -  180° 

15 

5  

180°  —  235° 

9 

6  

Residue 

2 

As  200°  C.  was  reached,  signs  of  decomposition  were  evident:  the  dis- 
tillate became  green  and  this  color  was  intensified  as  the  temperature  rose. 
A  few  c.c.  of  a  deep-green  liquid  were  left  in  the  flask.  No  change  was  ob- 
served in  this  on  standing,  and  no  crystals  were  deposited. 

For  purposes  of  comparison,  a  steam  distillation  was  performed  on  about 
75  c.c.  of  expressed  oil.  This  gave  a  perfectly  clear  oil  with  the  characteristic 
terebinthinate  distilled  oil  odor.  The  portion  remaining  undistilled  consisted 
of  a  heavy,  opaque,  greenish  oil,  which  retained  in  a  modified  form  the  odor 


3O2  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

of  the  original  oil.  The  distillate  was  subsequently  fractionated  and  the 
fractions  of  Table  LX  were  collected. 

Decomposition  set  in  about  i85°C.,  and  a  small  quantity  of  a  golden- 
yellow  oil  remained  undistilled  in  the  flask. 

Methyl  anthranilate . — From  the  foregoing  results,  it  would  appear 
that  during  the  process  of  distillation  with  steam  (the  conditions  under 
which  ordinary  distilled  oil  is  obtained  being  practically  those  of  a  steam 
distillation)  a  certain  proportion  of  the  lower  and  higher  boiling  con- 
stituents are  removed.  The  blue  fluorescence  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
crystalline  substance  in  the  higher  fractions  of  the  expressed  oil  is  en- 
tirely absent  in  those  of  the  distilled  oils.  This  substance  possibly  may 
be  the  methyl  anthranilate  which  is  known  to  exist  in  lime  oil  (Allen), 
to  the  methyl  ester  of  which— C6H4(NH-CH8)-COOCH8—E.  J.  Parry 
ascribes  the  blue  fluorescence  of  mandarin  orange  oil.1  This  is  probably 
removed  during  the  steam  distillation. 

Limettin. — Expressed  oil  on  standing  generally  deposits  a  pale-yellow 
crystalline  substance  known  as  limettin.  Distilled  oils  do  not  deposit  this 
body.  Limettin  is  stated  to  be  dimethoxy-cumarin ;  it  is  readily  soluble 
in  hot  water,  and  it  is  possible  that  distillation  with  steam  effects  the  re- 
moval of  the  limettin  itself,  or  of  that  constituent  of  expressed  oils  which 
by  the  action  of  light  may  be  converted  into  limettin.  (A  sample  of 
limettin  recrystallized  from  boiling  water  was  found  to  have  a  melting- 
point  of  H5°C.) 

Citral. — The  proportion  of  citral  is  also  less  in  distilled  oils  than  in 
the  corresponding  expressed  oil,  owing,  probably,  to  some  chemical 
change  brought  about  during  the  distillation. 

These,  then,  are  some  of  the  possible  causes  of  the  marked  difference 
between  expressed  and  distilled  oils.  At  present,  however,  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  constituents  of  the  oils  is  far  too  meager  for  us  to  be  able  to 
explain  fully  the  nature  of  the  changes  taking  place  during  the  steam 
distillation  of  an  expressed  oil. 

FRENCH  WEST  INDIES 

Small  quantities  of  citrate  of  lime  are  exported  from  Martinique. 

PORTO  RICO 

The  commercial  development  of  citrus-growing  in  Porto  Rico  dates 
from  the  time  of  the  American  occupation  in  1898.  Before  that  oranges, 
limes,  and  lemons  were  grown  for  home  consumption  but  practically 
none  of  these  fruits  were  exported.  Consequently  the  amount  of  citrus 

Allen's  Organic  Analysis,  1007,  Vol.  II,  Part  III,  p.  40. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XV. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  ofAgric.  Bull.  No.  160) 

TERRACES  OF  LEMON  TREES  ON  THE  MOUNTAIN  SIDE  NEAR  MAJORI,   ON  THE  AMALFI  COAST. 
Masonry  walls  are  built  to  keep  the  land  from  sliding, 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  oi  Agric.  Bull.  No.  160) 


TERRACES  OF  LEMON  TREES  RISING  FROM  THE  SEA  IN  SICILY. 
The  larger  trees  are  olives.    There  is  a  trellis  over  each  terrace  for  protection  from  frost. 


PORTO  Rico  303 


fruit  products  was  not  of  commercial  importance  previous  to  il 
Canned  grapefruit  is  now  the  principal  product  exported.  The  amount 
of  this  commodity  shipped  varies  from  year  to  year  in  accordance  with 
the  supply  and  demand  not  only  for  the  product  itself  but  for  fresh  citrus 
fruit  as  well. 

The  intimate  relation,  therefore,  between  citrus  fruit  and  citrus  fruit 
products  makes  it  imperative  to  describe  the  citrus  fruit  industry. 

People  from  the  United  States  came  to  Porto  Rico  for  the  purpose 
of  growing  fruit.  Orange  and  grapefruit  trees  were  planted  extensively 
in  the  Rio  Piedro-Bayamon  section  as  well  as  in  the  Espinosa  plantation 
section,  and  scattering  from  there  along  the  coastal  plain  to  Arecibo. 
Some  of  the  early  planters  had  acquired  a  knowledge  of  citrus  fruit- 
growing in  Florida,  but  the  great  majority  started  in  without  practical 
knowledge  of  tropical  agriculture  or  horticulture.  Consequently  some 
failures  resulted  but  the  industry  became  stabilized  in  a  short  time. 

Many  trees  were  stunted  by  scale  insects,  principally  Mytilaspis  din- 
cola.  However,  scale  was  found  to  thrive  only  when  trees  grew  in  dry 
air  or  windy  localities.  Under  humid  conditions  the  scale  does  not  thrive 
because  it  is  here  subject  to  fungi  attack.  The  planting  of  wind-breaks 
resulted  in  a  more  humid  condition,  fungi  growth,  and  scale  death. 

Grapefruit  were  found  to  grow  better  than  oranges  no  matter  on 
what  stock  they  were  budded.  Orange  trees  are  nevertheless  planted  for 
shade  in  coffee  plantations.  Neither  lemons  nor  limes  are  produced  in 
commercial  quantities.  Limes  should  do  well  in  Porto  Rico,  as  they 
grow  well  in  the  West  Indies  where  similar  climatic  and  soil  conditions 
exist. 

The  citrus  industry  in  Porto  Rico  is  hampered  by  drought  in  the 
winter  months  and  at  infrequent  periods  by  hurricanes  as  in  1898.  Dif- 
ficulty in  transportation  not  only  within  the  island  itself  but  also  from 
the  island  to  market  was  formerly  an  important  factor.  In  1898  wagon 
roads  were  not  built  far  enough  into  the  interior  to  allow  wheeled  vehicles 
to  enter,  and  of  course  carrying  fruit  on  horseback  down  mountain  trails 
was  not  satisfactory.  Ships  were  not  fitted  for  carrying  fruit  and  there- 
fore a  great  deal  of  fruit  decayed  before  reaching  market.  Sales  reports 
frequently  showed  15-25  per  cent  decay  on  arrival  in  New  York.  It  was 
not  until  1920  that  properly  ventilated  ships  became  available.  At  that 
time  a  steamship  line  began  transporting  fruit  from  Porto  Rico  to  New 
York  under  refrigeration  or  forced  draft.  Since  then  other  lines  have 
equipped  their  ships  with  proper  ventilation  and  some  with  refrigeration. 

The  chief  loss  from  decay  in  Porto  Rico  fruit  shipments  was  due  to 
stem-end  rot  caused  by  a  fungus  (Diplodia  natalensis) .  The  destructive 


304 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


action  of  this  fungus  is  prevented  by  sealing  the  cut  stems  of  the  fruits 
with  shellac  immediately  after  the  fruit  is  clipped  from  the  tree. 

Acreage. — According  to  the  United  States  census  report  of  1920 
there  were  then  219,000  bearing  grapefruit  trees  and  114,000  non-bearing 
trees. 

Orange  trees  approximate  100,000  upon  an  area  of  1,300  acres.  The 
total  area  planted  in  citrus  trees  is  6,000  acres.  The  acreage  would  have 
been  greater  if  better  transportation  had  been  afforded  as  there  is  plenty 
of  suitable  land  still  available.  Any  soil  that  will  produce  coffee  will 
produce  citrus  fruit.  Consequently  the  40,000  acres  now  planted  to 
coffee  could  be  used  for  fruit  raising. 

As  Table  LXI  shows  the  amount  of  fruit  shipped  from  Porto  Rico 
in  the  past  has  varied  considerably  from  year  to  year.  This  variation  is 
not  due  entirely  to  differences  in  yield  as  often  the  selling  price  determines 
the  amount  of  fruit  shipped.  Recently  a  number  of  canneries  have 
started  canning  grapefruit.1  They  pay  the  grower  as  high  as  $25.00  per 
ton  for  the  fruit.  Orange  canning  is  not  practiced. 

TABLE  LXI 

ANNUAL  SHIPMENTS  OF  CITRUS  FRUIT  FROM  PORTO  Rico 
SINCE  1910  (ACCORDING  TO  CUSTOMS  REPORT) 


Year  Ending 
June  30 

GRAPEFRUIT 

ORANGES 

No.  of  Boxes 

Value  Declared 

No.  of  Boxes 

Value  Declared 

IQIO  .  . 

48,441 
96,189 
118,937 
216,247 
206,200 

276,583 
296,645 
435,890 
549,125 

417,369 
419,629 
667,637 
360,530 
580,000 
809,000 

$  162,749 
309,698 
525,048 
726,811 
751,769 
834,440 
837,014 
939,677 
1,120,330 
739,106 
1,332,742 
2,019,557 
1,100,727 
1,756,000 
2,480,000 

296,058 
349,442 
277,422 
353,690 
348,927 
200,311 

404,451 
503,318 
603,226 

373,679 
336,625 
162,817 
388,182 
337,000 
464,000 

$  582,716 
703,969 
584,414 
740,091 
752,180 
378,l8l 
790,797 
1,009,737 
1,231,551 
770,303 
833,575 
447,426 
923,912 
838,000 
1,196,000 

IQII  .  . 

IOI2  .  . 

IQI'Z   . 

IQIA   . 

IQIS  . 

1916 

1917  

I9l8.  . 

I9IO.  . 

IQ2O.  . 

1921  .  . 

1022  .  . 

102^*  .  . 

IQ26*  .  . 

*Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  13,  1926. 

An  orange  marmalade  is  made  from  the  bitter  oranges  of  Porto  Rico 
by  some  of  the  native  women  and  sold  locally.  It  is  said  to  equal  the  best 
of  the  Dundee  product.  A  marmalade  is  also  made  from  grapefruit. 

aln  1925,  3,841,000  lb.,  and  in  1926  6,348,000  Ib.  (estimate)  of  canned  grapefruit 
was  exported  to  the  United  States.  (Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  XIII, 
No.  13,  1926.) 


DUTCH  WEST  INDIES  305 

HAITI 

The  average  orange  of  Haiti  is  not  as  good  as  that  found  in  the 
neighboring  islands.  Lack  of  care,  as  these  fruits  are  left  to  grow  prac- 
tically wild,  has  resulted  in  the  product  being  poor  compared  to  that  of 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  Jamaica.  Some  of  the  oranges  on  the  southern 
coast  possess  much  of  the  same  aromatic  properties  of  their  peel  as  those 
of  Curagao ;  the  peel  of  the  oranges  from  the  latter  island  is  the  base  of 
the  cordial  of  the  same  name.  Therefore  a  demand  has  arisen  for  the 
Haiti  south  coast  orange  peel.  The  Netherlands  is  the  principal  pur- 
chaser of  the  peel.  There  is  no  section  of  Haiti  where  oranges  do  not 
grow,  and  with  care  and  attention  superior  fruit  could  easily  be  produced. 

DUTCH   WEST  INDIES    (CURASAO)1 

The  "Curasao  liqueur"  which  has  done  much  to  make  the  island 
known,  is  not  made  in  Curasao  at  all.  It  is  made  in  the  Netherlands, 
having  acquired  its  name  because  orange  peel  from  the  island  of  Curagao 
is  one  of  the  principal  ingredients.  Owing  presumably  to  the  dryness  of 
the  island,  the  orange  peel  produced  there  possesses  a  peculiar  flavor  and 
strength,  which  no  other  peel  seems  to  have.  Orange  peel  is  one  of 
the  staple  articles  of  export,  though  the  native  supply  is  not  large.  A 
few  unimportant  attempts  have  been  made  to  manufacture  "Curagao" 
locally,  but  they  have  not  proven  successful.  The  total  exports  from  the 
island  during  the  most  recent  year  for  which  figures  are  available  were 
less  than  150  gallons.  Doubtless  .50  per  cent  of  this  was  brought  over 
from  Holland  and  exported  by  the  Willemstad  houses. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIII 
ANONYMOUS. 

Imperial  Department  of  Agriculture,   West  Indies,  Pamphlet  No.  46 

(1907-8). 

"ABC  of  Lime  Cultivation,"  ibid.,  Pamphlet  No.  53  (March,  1918). 
"The  Green  Lime  Trade  of  Dominica,"  Agricultural  News  (Barbadoes), 

XIX,  No.  478  (August  21,  1920),  265. 
"Citrate  of  Lime,"  ibid.,  I,  99. 
"Concentrated  Lime  Juice  (Ascertaining  Its  Strength  by  Means  of  a 

Hydrometer),"  ibid.,  IV,  349. 
"Concentrated  Lime  Juice  (Ascertaining  Its  Strength  by  Means  of  a 

Hydrometer),"  ibid.,  V,  236-40. 
"Citrate  of  Lime  from  Dominica,"  ibid.,  V,  324. 
"Citrate  of  Lime  from  Seychelles,"  ibid.,  VI,  27. 
"Preparation  of  Citrate  of  Lime,"  West  Indian  Bulletin  (Journal  of  the 

Imperial  Department  of  the  West  Indies),  III,  152. 

aSee  p.  319. 


306  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

"Citrate  of  Lime  and  Concentrated  Juices,"  ibid.,  VI,  308. 
"Citrate  of  Lime,"  ibid.,  VII,  331. 

"Citrate  of  Lime  and  Concentrated  Juice,"  ibid.,  VIII,  167. 
"Citrate  of  Lime,  Dominica,"  ibid.,  VIII,  170. 
"Lime  Juice  Concentration,"  ibid.,  VIII,  171. 
DAVIS,  S.  M. 

"Loss  of  Citric  Acid  in  Limes  and  Lime  Juice,"  Agricultural  News  (Bar- 
badoes),  XX,  No.  492  (March  5,  1921),  75. 

MAC!NTYRE,  J.  C. 

"Experiments  in  Lime  Juice  Concentration,"  West  Indian  Bulletin 
(Journal  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  the  West  Indies),  XII, 
(1912),  465-73. 

MOORE,  J.  C. 

"The  Lime  Industry  in  Saint  Lucia,"  West  Indian  Bulletin  (Journal  of 
the  Imperial  Department  of  the  West  Indies),  XII  (1912),  44—50. 

TEMPANY,  H.  A. 

"The  Lime  Industry  of  Antigua,"  West  Indian  Bulletin  (Journal  of  the 
Imperial  Department  of  West  Indies),  XII  (1912),  501-5. 

TEMPANY,  H.  A.,  and  GREENHALGH,  N. 

"Notes  on  Expressed  and  Distilled  West  Indian  Lime  Oils/.'  West  In- 
dian Bulletin  (Journal  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  the  West 
Indies),  XII  (1912),  498-501. 

TEMPANY,  H.  A.,  and  WEIL,  V.  M. 

"Investigations  on  the  Extractions  of  Lime  Juice  by  Milling,"  West 
Indian  Bulletin  (Journal  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  the  West 
Indies),  XII  (1912),  473-79. 

WARRINGTON  and  GROSJEAN. 

Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  (London)  (October,  1875). 

WATTS,  SIR  FRANCIS. 

"Citrate  of  Lime  and  Concentrated  Lime  Juice,"  West  Indian  Bulletin 
(Journal  of  the  Imperial  Department  of  the  West  Indies),  II  (1901), 
308-18. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


ARGENTINA 

The  total  number  of  orange  trees  in  1908  was  2,117,000  while  the 
lemon  trees  numbered  64,000.  Corventes  is  the  leading  province  in 
orange  culture  reporting  an  area  of  15,987  acres  carrying  1,514,000 
trees.  The  local  production  of  both  oranges  and  lemons  is  insufficient 
to  meet  the  demand.  The  amount  of  citrus  by-products  made  is  not 
known. 

BRAZIL 

The  annual  average  for  the  oranges  exported  for  the  three  years, 
1910-12,  was  $11,788  and  tangerines  $3,805. 

CHILE 

Oranges  and  lemons  are  raised  in  small  areas  in  Chile. 

PARAGUAY 

Orange  growing  is  the  principal  fruit  industry  of  Paraguay,  The 
number  of  orange  trees  of  bearing  age  was  estimated  as  1,500,000  in 
191 3-2  As  many  as  164,271,000  oranges  and  3,768,000  mandarins  were 
exported  in  that  year.  The  following  excerpts  from  a  book  on  Paraguay 
by  E.  de  Bourgade  la  Dardye  give  an  idea  of  the  potentiality  of  the 
country  as  a  producer  of  citrus  products. 

Everywhere,  on  the  banks  of  the  rios,  in  the  gorges  of  the  far-off  sierras, 
near  the  ranches,  round  the  estancias,  in  the  solitude  of  the  forests,  the  trees 
are  seen  with  their  golden  fruit  and  deep  green  foliage,  in  lines,  in  terraces, 
in  groves — everywhere,  on  mountains  and  on  plains,  they  grow  and  break 
the  blue  horizon  with  their  rounded  outline ;  and  it  seems  as  if  they  must 
have  flourished  there  from  all  antiquity. 

I  am  quite  ready  to  admit  that  the  sweet  orange,  the  bitter  orange,  the 
lemon,  and  their  numerous  varieties  were  imported  either  by  the  Spaniards 
or  by  the  Jesuits;  of  this  there  can  be  little  question;  the  original  habitat  of 
them  all  was  in  Asia,  and  the  history  of  their  dissemination  is  well  known ; 

*In  1586,  Cavendish  found  on  the  island  of  Puna  in  the  Gulf  of  Guyaquil,  in 
what  is  now  Ecuador,  an  orchard  of  "orenges,  sweete  and  sower,  limons,  pomegran- 
ates, and  lymes."  These  may  have  been  introduced  from  the  Philippines  as  the 
Spaniards  introduced  coconuts  from  this  source.  (The  Third  Circumnavigation  of 
the  Globe  .  ...  of  Thomas  Candish.) 

2A  new  Italian  colony  near  Villeta  finished  planting  in  July,  1926,  127,000 
orange  trees.  (Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  4) 

307 


308  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

but  at  the  same  time  there  is  a  Paraguayan  orange  especially  belonging  to 
itself.  It  has  a  flavor  that  is  slightly  acid,  which  makes  it  very  acceptable 
in  hot  weather;  without  cloying  the  palate  like  the  sweet  orange  or  setting 
the  teeth  on  edge  like  a  lemon.  It  seems  to  cleanse  the  mouth  in  a  way  that 
is  very  refreshing.  So  far  from  growing  everywhere,  it  is  found  chiefly  in 
the  depths  of  the  forests  and  on  the  banks  of  insignificant  streams.  I  have 
met  with  it  in  the  most  remote  places,  in  the  unexplored  valleys  of  the 
Ygatimi,  and  on  the  margin  of  the  Upper  Parani,  where  it  could  certainly 
never  have  been  introduced  by  human  agency.  So  abundantly  does  it  grow 
on  the  Parana  above  the  Salts  de  Guayra  that  during  a  flood  I  have  seen 
numbers  of  the  trees  drifting  down  the  stream. 

But  after  all,  whether  oranges  of  any  kind  are  indigenous  to  Paraguay 
or  not,  it  is  very  certain  that  they  well  might  be  for  the  whole  world  could 
not  show  a  soil  that  is  more  favorable  for  their  growth.  Without  attempting 
to  enumerate  all  the  varieties  of  oranges  and  lemons  that  are  found,  I  may 
mention  the  following  as  being  the  most  common.  The  sweet  orange  (Citrus 
sinensis  L.),  the  bitter  orange  or  bigarrade  (C.  Aurantium  L.),  the  man- 
darin orange,  the  apepu,  the  citron  (C.  medico),  the  toronjo  (C.  limonium 
citratus),  the  common  lemon  (C.  Limonia),  the  lime  or  sweet  lemon  (C. 
auranti folia) ,  and  the  lime  of  Persia. 

It  would  be  quite  impossible  to  form  a  true  estimate  as  to  what  extent 
of  area  in  Paraguay  is  taken  up  by  this  orange  growth.  Sometimes  singly, 
sometimes  in  clumps,  sometimes  in  vast  forests — as  in  part  of  the  Missions — 
the  trees  thrive  in  almost  every  district,  here  under  cultivation,  there  en- 
tirely wild. 

According  to  the  reports  from  Paraguay  the  most  ruinous  methods 
are  being  employed  which  have  resulted  in  complete  annihilation  of  the 
underbrush  of  orange  trees  or  Manchones  over  wide  areas  (Mazuyer). 
In  his  book,  Paraguay  in  Wort  und  Bild,  R.  von  Fischer-Treuenfeld 
renders  the  following  account  i1 

Although  wild  orange  groves  are  still  numerous,  they  are,  because  of  the 
pernicious  methods  practiced,  remote  from  the  inhabited  places.  The  har- 
vest is  carried  on  all  year,  but  principally  from  October  to  April.  About 
5  cm.  above  the  ground  the  trees  are  chopped  down.  The  leaves  and  young 
fruits  are  distilled  on  the  spot,  the  wood  being  used  as  fuel.  Thus  indolence 
and  vandalism  have  led  to  the  annihilation  of  the  orange  forests.  More  re- 
cently the  Government  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  chopping  down  of  the 
trees  and  to  regulate  the  harvesting  by  law.  Hence  the  price  of  the  oil  has 
risen  and  it  is  more  and  more  difficult  to  obtain  the  product. 

OIL  OF  PETITGRAIN2 

The  term  petitgrain,  under  which  the  essence  is  commonly  known  in 
industry  and  commerce,  is  derived  from  the  primitive  processes  of  extrac- 

*Report  of  Schimmel  &  Co.  (April,  1902),  p.  55. 
2See  also  pp.  195-98. 


PETITGRAIN  OIL  309 

tion  from  scarcely  formed  green  fruit  when  no  larger  than  a  chestnut  or 
beechnut.  The  product  now  extracted  from  the  leaves  is  similar  to  that 
obtained  from  the  small  fruit,  and  through  force  of  habit  the  old  name 
has  been  preserved. 

The  bitter  orange  tree,  the  "naranjo  agrio"  of  the  country,  whose 
leaves  form  the  source  of  the  oil,  is  found  growing  wild  over  the  same 
wide  area  in  which  the  sweet  orange  flourishes  so  spontaneously,  though 
it  is  of  more  frequent  occurrence  in  the  forest  region  than  is  the  latter 
variety.  It  is  distinguishable  by  the  form  of  leaves  and  the  greater 
coarseness  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  which  is  also  generally  larger  than 
the  sweet  orange.  It  is  also  distinguishable  from  the  "apepu"  or  native 
bitter  orange. 

The  petitgrain  industry  is  centered  in  a  zone  about  the  small  town  of 
Yaguaron,  although  the  trees  are  increasingly  exploited  outside  this  area, 
especially  in  the  region  east  of  the  railway.  Distilling  is  carried  on  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  villages  of  Ita,  San  Jose  de  la  Cordillera,  Itacu- 
ruby,  and  Nemby,  all  of  which  lie  within  about  60  miles  of  Asuncion. 
The  number  of  distilleries  producing  petitgrain  oil  in  1909  was  estimated 
at  thirty1  located  as  follows :  twenty  in  Yaguaron,2  four  in  Ita,  three  in 
San  Jose  de  la  Cordillera,  one  in  Itacuruby,  and  two  in  Nemby.  Col- 
lectively they  had  a  capacity  of  from  2600  to  3000  kg.  monthly  or  about 
36000  kg.  annually. 

The  Jesuits  are  credited  with  having  been  the  first  to  exploit  petit- 
grain,  but  the  exact  date  of  the  inception  of  this  industry  is  unknown.  In 
1873  tne  industry  was  modified  through  the  efforts  of  a  French  botanist, 
Balanza,  who  visited  Paraguay  to  study  the  flora  of  the  country  and  who 
then  examined  the  properties  of  the  oranges.  He  became  interested  in 
the  production  of  "Agua  de  Azahar,"  or  the  extract  of  orange  blossoms, 
but  finally  turned  to  the  utilization  of  the  leaves  of  the  bitter  orange  tree. 
He  proved  the  practicability  of  substituting  the  leaves  for  the  blossoms 
as  the  base  of  perfumes  hitherto  derived  from  the  latter  source,  and  thus 
laid  the  basis  of  the  present  industry.  The  rather  crude  method  of  ex- 
traction which  he  devised  has  been  changed  but  little  since  his  time, 
though  a  process,  kept  secret  by  its  users,  of  refining  the  raw  product 
has  since  been  invented. 

The  only  equipment  of  those  engaged  in  the  industry  is  a  simple  still,3 
which  can  be  carried  from  place  to  place  if  necessary.  The  still  is  set 

*Le  Messager  de  Sao  Paolo  (September  7,  1909)  ;  also  Report  of  Schimmel  & 
Co.  (April,  1910) ,  p.  89. 

"Chemist  and  Druggist,  LI  (1897),  no. 
'See  Plate  XII. 


3io 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


up  in  a  palm-thatched  hut,  to  which  the  gatherers  bring  the  leaves  for 
distillation.  These  are  packed  into  a  receptacle  like  a  barrel,  the  bottom 
of  which  has  been  perforated  with  holes  for  the  admission  of  steam.  A 
steam-generating  apparatus,  the  wood  fuel  for  which  is  picked  up  in  a 
nearby  forest,  forms  steam  at  a  pressure  not  in  excess  of  one  atmosphere. 
The  vapor  which  results  from  the  saturation  of  the  steam  with  the  vola- 
tile oil  of  the  leaves  is  carried  off  through  a  pipe  at  the  top  of  the  vat  to 
the  coils  of  another  chamber,  where  it  is  condensed  by  cooling. 

The  condensed  liquid  passes  into  a  florentine  flask  which  acts  as  a 
receiver  and  separates  the  water  from  the  oily  essence.  The  essence  may 
be  now  said  to  be  ready  for  market  although  some  producers  think  it 
necessary  to  purify  by  filtration.  The  process  of  further  distillation  for 
refining  the  product  thus  obtained  is  carried  on  by  houses  in  Asuncion, 
which  export  the  essence  to  the  foreign  buyers. 


TABLE  LXII 


Countries 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

France   

(kilos) 
17,111 

(kilos) 
26,064 

(kilos) 
20.018 

(kilos) 
IO.048 

Netherlands  

7,335 

3,132 

United  States  

5,119 

3,156 

8,3l8 

6.O52 

Argentina  

4-.Q2I 

7.QIO 

II.  413 

4.5QQ 

Uruguay  

I.42S 

113 

262 

341 

Italy  

1,  080 

1,160 

2,66o 

1,350 

Denmark     

884 

England         .        

308 

670 

I.I  S4 

253 

Germany           

24O 

4,02  1 

7.421 

12,380 

266 

24O 

Chile  

86 

Total.  . 

46.423 

46.23.5 

61.408 

.16.163 

The  natives  gather  the  leaves  and  receive  about  12  cents  per  20  Ib. 
It  is  customary  to  cut  down  the  trees  for  stripping,  but  where  this  is  not 
done  a  tree  can  be  stripped  once  every  two  years.  Between  500  and  600 
Ib.  of  leaves  are  necessary  to  produce  a  quart  of  the  unrefined  oil,  and 
the  usual  still  will  produce  about  4  qt.  a  day.  The  labor  attached  to  the 
distillation  process  is  inconsiderable.  As  soon  as  the  apparatus  has  been 
charged  for  a  thirty-six-hour  run  it  is  only  necessary  to  see  to  the  keeping 
up  of  the  fire  which  takes  one  person  about  three  hours  a  day.  A  small 
distillery  of  the  Balanza  system  produces  on  an  average  50  qt.  (or  kilo- 
grams) of  essence  of  petitgrain  a  month,  and  on  gross  receipts  of  $144 
a  net  gain  of  $120  is  made.  The  oil  is  placed  for  exportation  in  tin  boxes 


FIELD  MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,    VOL.    VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XVI. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Bull.  No.  160) 

ONE  OF  THE  BETTER  TYPES  OF  GROVES  AT  MASCALI.   SICILY. 
Showing  the  high-headed  trees,  a  distributing  furrow  between  the  rows,  and  basins  around  the  trees. 


(Poivell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Bull.  160) 

A  GROVE  OF  LOW-HEADED  TREES  IN  CALIFORNIA. 


BRITISH  GUIANA  311 

holding  2  kg.  These  tin  boxes  are  made  especially  for  this  purpose  and 
have  a  small  opening  at  the  top,  which  is  sealed  as  soon  as  they  are  filled. 

The  essence  is  in  good  demand  as  a  basis  for  perfumes  and  flavoring 
extracts,  and  about  70  per  cent  of  this  demand  is  supplied  by  exports 
from  Paraguay.  For  a  long  time  France  took  most  of  the  production, 
but  during  1916  a  good  market  was  opened  with  Spain. 

Exports  by  countries  for  the  years  1915  to  1918  are  given  in  Table  LXII. 

The  exports  credited  to  Argentina  and  Uruguay  are,  of  course,  largely 
shipments  in  transit,  the  ultimate  destination  of  these  consignments  being 
Europe  or  the  United  States. 

TABLE  LXIII 
EXPORTS  OF  PETITGRAIN  FROM  PARAGUAY  FOR  THE  YEARS  1914  TO  1920 

Years  Quantity  in  Pounds 

1912 52,704 

1913 71,322 

1914 26,159 

1915 38,425 

1916 46,235 

1917 61,498 

1918 36,163 

1919 37,976 

1920 73,675 

A  full  description  of  the  chemical  and  physical  properties  of  the  oil 
is  to  be  found  in  chapter  x  (pp.  195-98). 

BRITISH  GUIANA 

Limes  are  cultivated  over  about  1,350  acres,  and  the  erection  of  fac- 
tories for  the  production  of  concentrated  juice  and  citrate  of  lime  has 
given  the  industry  a  much  desired  impetus;  the  exports  were  (1919) 
389.5  cwt.  citrate  of  lime,  7,356  gal.  of  raw  and  2,882  gal.  concentrated 
lime  juice  and  326  gal.  of  oil  of  limes. 

URUGUAY 

One-fourth  of  the  total  area  in  fruit  trees  in  1908  was  devoted  to 
oranges  (16,884  acres)  comprising  501,119  trees  with  a  fruit  produc- 
tion of  6,292,759  pounds. 

1,403  acres  of  lemons  growing  40,332  trees  produced  315,901  pounds 
of  fruit  in  1908.  At  this  time  the  local  orange  production  was  insuffi- 
cient to  meet  the  demands  of  the  country.  No  record  has  been  obtained 
of  the  amount  of  by-products  produced. 


312  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XIV 

ALBEO,  EDWARD. 

"Paraguay's  Oil  of  Petitgrain,"  Bulletin  of  the  Pan-American  Union, 
XLVII  (1918),  534-41- 

ANONYMOUS. 

"Extraction  of  the  Oil  of  Petitgrain,"  Bulletin  Bureau  of  American  Re- 
publics, XXIX  (1909),  969-71. 

Report  of  United  States  Vice-Consul,  Asuncion,  Paraguay.  February  4, 
1921. 

"The  Petitgrain  Industry,"  Bulletin  Bureau  of  American  Republics, 
XXX  (1910),  871-72. 

(British  Guiana  in  1919).  Chemical  Industry,  XL  (June  15,  1921), 
222R,  from  Col.  Rep. — Ann.,  No.  1068,  March,  1921. 

DE  LA  DARLYE,  E.  DE  BOURGADE. 
Paraguay.    London,  1892. 

FISCHER-TRUENFELD,  R.  VON. 

Paraguay  in  Wort  und  Bild  (2d.  ed),  p.  187.    Berlin,  1906. 

FREIRE,  DARIO.    Le  Messager  de  Sao  Paolo.    Brazil. 

MAZUYER,  L. 

American  Perfumer,  IV  (1909),  106,  127. 

SCHURZ,  W.  L. 

A  Commercial  Handbook  on  Paraguay.  Published  by  Department  of 
Commerce. 


CHAPTER  XV 
THE  INDUSTRY  IN  EUROPE 

GREECE 

The  citrus  region  is  confined  to  the  provinces  of  Vostizza,  Agrinion, 
Diakopton,  and  Akratas.  The  first  two  produce  most  of  the  finer  fruit 
exported  to  the  United  States.  Heavy  frosts  in  early  November1  wrought 
losses  amounting  to  40  per  cent  of  the  crop.  Curiously  enough  the  lemon 
and  orange  crops  of  Western  Greece  escaped  all  frost  damage  but  suf- 
fered a  general  loss  of  45  per  cent  from  fly  damage.1 

The  1920-21  citrus  crop  in  the  consular  district  of  Patras,  Greece,  is 
reported  to  have  shown  an  increase  of  20  per  cent  in  production  and  an 
increase  of  approximately  30  per  cent  in  prices.  The  American  Consul 
at  Patras  said  that  this  price  increa'se  ranged  from  25  per  cent  on  low- 
grade  fruit  to  40  per  cent  on  the  best  grade.  American  buyers  in  1919 

TABLE  LXIV* 
GREEK  PRODUCTION  OF  CITRUS  FRUITS,  1921-22  TO  1923-24 


Fruit 

1921-22 

(Numbers) 

1922-23 

(Numbers) 

1923-24 

(Numbers) 

Oranges  

53,OOO,OOO 

152,000  ooo 

61,100  ooo 

Mandarines  

18  ooo  ooo 

63,000  ooo 

58,100  ooo 

Lemons  

31,000,000 

49,000,000 

29,000,000 

'Chamber  of  Commerce  Journal,  London,  May  2,  1924,  p.  247.    Consular  Report,  Athens,  January 
4.  1923- 

imported  1,007,686  Ib.  of  citrons  in  brine  from  Patras  and  local  citrus 
exporters  considered  that  the  demands  in  hand  assured  a  considerable  in- 
crease in  American  business.  The  principal  reason  given  for  higher  prices 
was  the  heavy  cost  for  cutting,  brining  and  barreling.  This  cost  increased 
from  $0.61  per  100  Ib.  to  $1.29,  because  of  higher  wages  and  greater 
costs  of  cooperage. 

SPAIN 

The  chief  centers  in  Spain  are  the  provinces  of  Valencia,  Castellon, 
and  Murcia  on  the  east  coast,  and  the  provinces  of  Seville  and  Cordoba. 

*The  Market  Reporter  (United  States  Department  of  Agriculture),  III,  No. 
10  (March  5,  1921),  159. 


313 


314  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

Valencia  is  pre-eminently  the  sweet  orange  region.  Lemons,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  not  produced  to  any  extent  in  the  Valencia  district. 
Lemons  are  grown  extensively,  as  is  the  bitter  orange  used  for  marma- 
lade, in  the  Province  of  Seville.  It  is  estimated  that  the  total  acreage 
in  Spain  planted  to  oranges  in  1922  is  225,000  acres.  Lemon  trees, 
although  in  flower  the  year  round,  bear  their  greatest  crops  in  Novem- 
ber, April,  and  May.  Orange  lands  are  valuable  and  sell  from  $700  to 
$1,000  per  acre ;  the  average  yield  per  acre  is  20,000  Ib. ;  the  average  yield 
per  tree,  about  275  Ib. 

Spain  is  a  source  of  a  small  amount  of  citrus  products.1 

FORMER  AUSTRIAN    EMPIRE 

From  1909  to  1913  inclusive  exports  of  lemons  and  citrons  were 
valued  at  $435,000  per  annum  and  oranges  $209,000  per  annum.  In  the 
fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  Austria-Hungary  exported  to  the  United 
States  652  Ib.  of  citric  acid.2 

FRANCE 

The  exports  of  citrus  by-products  to  the  United  States  for  the  year 
ending  June  30,  1914,  were  artificial  oil  of  bergamot  121  Ib.,  hand- 
pressed  oil  of  bergamot  212  Ib.,  oil  of  lemon  1,543  Ib.,  oil  of  neroli 
7,839  Ib.,  oil  of  orange  3,040  Ib.,  oil  of  petitgrain  5  Ib.,  terpeneless  oil  of 
petitgrain  4  Ib.,  orange  peel  15,684  Ib.,  and  essence  of  orange  flowers  25 
Ib.  Later  statistics  are  included  in  the  Appendix.3 

Corsica  is  the  largest  producer  of  citron.4 

ITALY 
GEOGRAPHICAL  DISTRIBUTION  OF  THE  BY-PRODUCT  INDUSTRY 

In  northern  Italy  the  manufacture  of  citrus  products  is  unprofitable ; 
the  industry  flourishes  only  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country.  In 
Sicily,  especially  along  the  southeastern  coast,  it  constitutes  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  income  to  the  people.  The  world's  supply  of  bergamot 
oil  comes  principally  from  the  province  of  Calabria.  Much  higher  prices 
are  obtained  for  it  than  for  lemon  oil.  In  Sicily  is  found  the  largest 
lemon-growing  region  in  the  world ;  it  lies  along  the  northern  and  eastern 
coast  and  is  naturally  divided  into  five  parts.  Listed  in  order  of  their 
importance  they  are :  the  Etna  district,  the  Messina  district,  the  Palermo 
district,  the  Syracuse  district,  and  the  north  coast  district. 

*For  additional  statistics,  see  pp.  348,  355. 
"For  additional  statistics,  see  pp.  355,  365. 
'See  pp.  348,  354,  355,  364,  368. 
4See  Plates  XIII,  XIV,  and  pp.  110-12. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,   VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XVII. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  ofAgric.  Bull.  160) 

PICKING  AND  GRADING  THE  FRUIT,   PALERMO,   SICILY. 
The  lemons  are  being  graded  roughly  for  by-products  and  for  export. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  oj  Agric.  Bull.  160) 


INTERIOR  OF  A  PACKING-HOUSE  AT  CATANIA,   SICILY. 
Showing  the  padded  bins  used  in  grading  and  packing. 


ITALY  315 

The  industry  near  Etna. — This  district  lies  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Sicily 
and  extends  from  Catania  on  the  south  to  Giardini  on  the  north  and  takes 
in  the  towns  of  Francavilla,  Bronte,  Aderno,  and  Paterno  which  lie  on  the 
watershed  of  Mount  Etna. 

Aside  from  fresh  fruit  the  principal  products  of  this  district  are  lemon 
oil,  orange  oil,  and  citrate  of  lime.  These  are  sent  by  rail  to  Messina  for 
export. 

Catania,  the  southernmost  city  of  this  section,  contains  one  lemon-oil 
factory  of  considerable  size  with  many  smaller  ones  in  the  suburbs.  In  the 
smaller  manufactories  the  fruit  is  prepared  in  the  street,  and  the  oil  extracted 
in  the  living-rooms  and  stored  in  the  sleeping-rooms  of  the  houses.  Accord- 
ing to  Chace  the  only  place  given  over  exclusively  to  the  manufacturing 
process  is  the  room  devoted  to  calcium  citrate  and  this  may  serve  also  as  a 
stable.  A  small  number  of  culls  are  bought  from  time  to  time  as  needed,  and 
the  whole  family  takes  part  in  transforming  them  into  the  final  products. 

Acireale,  a  small  thriving  city,  is  the  most  important  center  of  this  in- 
dustry in  the  Etna  district.  With  a  dozen  or  more  factories,  it  is  also  head- 
quarters for  the  Essential  Oil  Producers'  Association,  an  organization  of 
comparatively  recent  formation,  the  membership  of  which  seems  to  be  con- 
fined to  producers  in  the  Etna  district. 

North  of  Acireale,  6  miles  distant,  is  Giarre,  with  one  factory  of  fair 
size  and  several  of  minor  importance.  About  2  miles  nearer  the  foothills  of 
Mount  Etna,  at  the  railroad  station  for  Mascali,  is  a  small  village  called 
Carrubba,  whose  inhabitants,  men,  women,  and  children,  are  employed  in  a 
group  of  large  factories  situated  there.  One  of  these  factories  is  the  largest 
and  best  equipped  in  Sicily,  employing  at  the  height  of  the  season  over  three 
hundred  hands,  producing  several  hundred  pounds  of  oil  a  day.  Even  here 
such  advance  as  has  been  made  does  not  seem  to  have  changed  the  character 
of  the  methods  employed,  the  improvements  often  being  more  apparent  than 
real,  and  emphasized  by  the  crude  conditions  surrounding  them. 

Mechanical  carriers  are  used  for  conveying  the  fruit  from  one  part  of 
the  factory  to  the  other  and  for  carrying  off  the  waste  products,  but  no  de- 
vices for  halving  the  lemons  or  removing  the  pulp  from  them  have  been 
attempted.  A  battery  of  machines  for  extracting  the  oil  from  the  peel  was 
at  one  time  installed,  but  later  abandoned.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  device 
was  a  failure,  for  the  peel  required  the  same  preparation  as  in  the  present 
methods  of  handling,  and  each  machine  needed  an  attendant,  who  handled 
separately  every  half  lemon  rind.  As  the  rate  of  production  was  not  greatly 
increased,  the  apparent  saving  was  the  difference  in  cost  between  the  hire  of 
a  boy  or  girl  attendant  and  that  of  a  man  sponger  minus  the  cost  of  power 
necessary  to  operate  machines.  After  all,  however,  the  place  is  exceedingly 
well  equipped  when  compared  with  other  Sicilian  factories,  having  cement 
floors  and  tanks,  an  electric  lighting  plant,  steam  ovens  for  drying  citrate  of 
lime,  and  many  other  improvements  not  usually  seen  on  the  island. 

The  two  neighboring  factories  are  of  the  usual  type,  but  well  arranged 
and  roomy,  employing  about  fifty  hands  each.  They  produce  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  100  Ib.  of  oil  daily. 

Several  miles  northwest  of  this  point,  on  the  first  of  the  foothills  of 
Mount  Etna,  is  the  town  of  Mascali,  containing  several  small  factories  of 


316  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

minor  importance,  drawing  their  fruit  from  the  upland  valleys  of  the 
vicinity.  The  other  two  centers  in  the  district  are  Fiumefreddo  and  Giardini. 
The  former  contains  several  factories  of  a  daily  capacity  of  50  to  100  Ib.  of 
oil ;  the  latter,  one  large  factory  and  several  very  small  ones,  there  being  in 
addition  several  small  places  between  the  two  towns.  Giardini  is  the 
northern  limit  of  the  district  and  draws  its  supplies  from  the  south,  being 
cut  off  from  the  Messina  district  on  the  north  by  a  steep  range  of  hills,  over 
which  hauling  is  difficult  even  on  the  fine  military  road  which  skirts  the 
coast.  Fiumefreddo  is  6  or  7  miles  farther  south  and  is  surrounded  for 
miles  on  all  sides  by  lemon  gardens.  The  whole  region  from  Catania  to 
Giardini  lies  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Etna,  many  of  the  fruit  orchards  being  on 
its  decomposed  lava  beds. 

Oranges  are  also  grown  in  this  district,  but  are  as  a  rule  farther  inland 
in  the  foothills.  Aderno,  Paterno,  and  Bronte,  situated  well  up  on  the  slopes 
of  Etna,  have  considerable  of  this  trade,  as  has  Francavilla,  farther  north, 
nearer  Giardini,  the  large  factory  at  the  latter  place  producing  considerable 
quantities  of  both  sweet  and  bitter  orange  oil  from  the  fruit  grown  here. 

The  season  begins  in  the  Etna  district  in  December  and  is  practically 
over  by  April  i,  although  a  few  small  operators  continue  into  May.  As  the 
growing  of  Verdelli  lemons  is  less  practiced  in  this  region  than  in  the  Mes- 
sina district  or  in  parts  of  the  north  coast,  the  inducements  for  summer  work 
are  not  the  same.  The  output  of  the  district  is  marketed  at  Messina,  being 
shipped  to  that  point  by  rail,  the  exportation  of  oil  and  citrate  of  lime  from 
Catania  being  less  than  the  production  of  that  city  alone. 

The  industry  in  the  Messina  district. — The  Messina  district,  the  second 
largest  in  Sicily,  is  practically  a  continuation  of  the  Etna  district  on  the 
south.  The  lemon-producing  land  lies  along  the  coast,  extending  into  the 
few  valleys  which  run  back  between  the  hills  as  in  that  district.  The  soil, 
however,  is  probably  quite  different,  as  it  is  much  farther  from  Mount  Etna, 
no  lava  streams  having  entered  the  section  for  many  hundred  years. 

The  largest  center  at  the  southern  end  of  the  district  is  Santa  Teresa, 
from  which  the  oil  of  the  neighboring  town  Roccalumera  is  also  shipped. 
There  are  eight  or  more  factories  in  the  two  places,  one  of  which  is  con- 
siderably above  the  average  size,  employing  a  hundred  hands  or  over,  the 
others  varying  from  those  employing  less  than  a  dozen  to  those  which  have 
upward  of  fifty.  Northward  toward  Messina,  the  next  center  of  importance 
is  Scaletta  Zangles,  where  are  located  three  or  four  factories  of  very  small 
size.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  district,  from  Galati  to  Messina,  the  coast 
belt  is  much  narrower  than  toward  the  south ;  the  towns  here  stretch  con- 
tinuously along  the  military  road,  there  being  scarcely  a  visible  boundary 
between  them.  When  riding  along  this  road  the  whole  region  seems  an 
extension  of  the  city  of  Messina. 

The  chief  centers  are  Galati,  Tremestieri,  Mili,  and  Contesse,  all  small 
towns  having  direct  railroad  connections  with  the  city.  The  factories  are, 
taken  as  a  whole,  better  equipped  than  elsewhere  in  the  island.  Mostly  they 
are  of  moderate  size,  some  employing  less  than  twenty  hands,  though  one, 
with  over  two  hundred,  is  second  or  third  in  size  in  Sicily.  This  factory  is 
one  of  the  very  few  to  produce  concentrated  oil  by  fractional  distillation  of 
the  usual  product.  Owing  to  the  size  of  the  factories  and  the  narrowness  of 


ITALY  317 

the  coast  strip  here,  a  large  quantity  of  the  fruit  consumed  is  drawn  from 
farther  south,  and  during  the  bergamot  season  from  Calabria,  on  the  main- 
land. 

Messina  itself  is  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  high  hills  upon  which  no 
lemons  are  grown ;  fruit  in  large  quantities  must,  therefore,  come  from  some 
little  distance.  For  this  reason  there  is  but  one  factory  of  any  considerable 
size  in  the  city;  it  employs,  however,  over  two  hundred  hands,  being  situ- 
ated on  the  north  side  of  the  city  in  an  isolated  group  of  groves. 

Messina,  like  Catania,  contains  many  very  small  places  where  oil  is 
made  in  the  dwellings  of  the  lower  classes,  the  output  in  any  single  instance 
being  small,  but  the  total  of  some  importance.  There  was  also  at  one  time 
a  quantity  of  products  made  here  from  the  culls  of  stored  fruit  which  has 
given  way  before  the  Verdelli  lemon. 

On  the  north  coast,  not  far  from  Messina,  are  two  centers  of  minor  im- 
portance, Bauso  and  Rometta.  There  seems  little  reason  for  classing  them 
with  the  remainder  of  the  Messina  district  except  for  the  fact  that  they 
employ  methods  of  production  similar  to  those  used  on  the  south  coast, 
while  the  center  nearest  them  on  the  north  coast  employs  a  somewhat  differ- 
ent process  in  obtaining  oil.  Undoubtedly,  however,  as  far  as  the  oil  is  con- 
cerned its  composition  here  is  more  nearly  like  that  of  the  north  coast,  no 
matter  what  process  is  used  in  its  production.  The  factories  in  those  towns 
are  quite  small,  especially  at  Rometta,  Bauso  containing  one  of  the  average 
size,  employing  nearly  fifty  hands. 

As  in  the  Etna  district,  the  produce  of  the  entire  Messina  region  is  dis- 
posed of  through  Messina  brokers.  The  season  also  is  the  same  as  in  that 
district. 

The  industry  in  the  Palermo  district. — Palermo,  the  third  district  of  im- 
portance, is  the  most  westerly  of  the  five.  As  in  the  other  north-coast  re- 
gions, lemon  cultivation  occurs  in  large  isolated  groups  of  orchards,  with  the 
exception  of  the  Conco  d'Oro,  where  the  whole  valley  is  given  up  to  it.  This 
valley  is  of  exceptional  fertility,  and  it  is  said  that  at  one  time  considerable 
sugar  cane  was  raised  here.  The  fruit  being  above  the  average  quality,  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  shipped  fresh.  The  culls  for  by-products  go  both  to 
Palermo  and  to  the  small  city  of  Monreale,  beautifully  situated  above 
Palermo  in  the  hills.  Here  are  some  half-dozen  poorly  equipped  factories 
of  small  size,  employing  from  a  dozen  to  thirty  hands  each. 

Palermo  itself  is  the  largest  city  of  Sicily  and  contains  several  important 
factories,  situated  largely  in  the  suburbs;  the  output  of  oil  is  not,  however, 
larger  than  that  of  some  of  the  small  towns  of  the  south  coast.  Information 
about  the  factories  here  is  much  harder  to  obtain  than  in  other  parts  of 
Sicily;  there  are  at  least  six  of  average  size,  the  city  being  free  from  fac- 
tories of  the  smaller  type  such  as  are  found  in  Catania  and  Messina. 

Toward  the  east,  the  principal  center  is  Ficarazzi,  where  there  are  sev- 
eral factories,  one  of  which  may  be  said  to  be  large.  There  are  also  other 
towns  to  the  west  of  Palermo  which  contain  manufacturing  plants,  but  they 
are  small  and  relatively  unimportant.  At  Pattinico,  on  the  Trapani  railroad 
line,  are  two  or  three,  at  Carini  one,  and  at  Cinisi  another;  taking  it  all  in 
all,  they  are  the  crudest  of  the  island. 


318  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

While  this  district  produces  a  large  quantity  of  oil  and  citrate  of  lime, 
the  industry  is  not  so  well  developed  as  in  the  two  districts  already  described, 
these  commodities  here  being  in  every  sense  of  the  word  by-products. 

The  production  of  summer  lemons  is  universal  in  this  region  and  affects 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  composition  of  the  essential  oil.  This  is  probably 
due  to  admixture  of  oil  produced  from  the  Verdelli  lemons  left  upon  the  trees 
until  the  following  season.  Ordinarily  the  amount  thus  produced  is  small; 
when,  however,  the  price  of  summer  fruit  is  low  it  is  very  often  left  unpicked 
until  the  following  natural  crop  is  gathered,  when  it  is  sorted  out  with  the 
other  culls.  In  some  factories  this  fruit  is  discarded,  no  attempt  being  made 
to  produce  oil  from  it.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  it  is  worked  up  as 
usual.  It  would  seem  that  the  former  is  far  the  better  policy,  as  the  yield 
both  of  oil  and  of  citrate  of  lime  are  extremely  low,  added  to  which  is  the 
further  disadvantage  of  the  inferiority  of  the  resulting  oil.  Where  this  fruit 
forms  a  considerable  proportion,  the  resulting  product  is  not  marketable  ex- 
cept in  admixtures  with  normal  oil. 

The  season  begins  here  later  than  in  any  of  the  other  districts,  often  two 
months  later  than  at  Syracuse,  and  extends  later  into  the  warm  weather,  the 
month  of  June  often  finding  several  factories  still  in  operation.  Although 
the  city  of  Palermo  in  this  district  is  the  largest  seaport  and  first  city  of  com- 
mercial importance  in  Sicily,  only  a  comparatively  small  quantity  of  the 
products  are  shipped  from  that  point,  this  exportation  going  to  England,  that 
coming  to  the  United  States  being  confined  to  fresh  fruit. 

The  industry  in  the  Syracuse  district. — The  fourth  by-product  district  is 
on  the  opposite  side  of  the  island,  southeast  of  Palermo,  and  is  but  slightly 
less  important  than  that  center.  The  Syracuse  district  differs  in  many  ways 
from  the  others  of  Sicily ;  the  country  not  being  mountainous,  the  fruit  is  cul- 
tivated farther  inland  than  usual  and  the  problem  of  irrigation  is  more  diffi- 
cult. Lemon  culture  is  not  the  chief  occupation  here,  for  the  country  has 
been  one  of  the  finest  wheat-growing  regions  since  ancient  times,  and  at 
present,  besides  this  cereal,  both  almonds  and  grapes  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated. 

The  climate  is  very  mild,  the  gathering  of  lemons  beginning  several 
weeks  earlier  than  in  the  other  districts.  October  15  to  April  15  is  a  liberal 
estimate  of  the  manufacturing  season,  while  fifteen  days  might  be  cut  from 
each  end  and  more  nearly  represent  the  actual  fact. 

The  district  contains  several  isolated  centers  of  production,  the  groves 
not  being  continuous,  as  in  the  lemon  belt  proper,  but  clustered  in  large 
groups  about  the  several  towns.  Three  of  these  centers  are  of  considerable 
importance,  the  cities  of  Syracuse,  Floridia,  and  Avola,  all  containing  six  or 
more  factories  and  each  employing  twenty  hands  or  more. 

At  Syracuse  there  are  no  factories  on  the  island  which  forms  the  old 
city,  all  being  on  the  mainland  in  the  newer  suburbs.  Comparing  favorably 
in  size  with  the  average  factories  in  other  districts,  they  are  in  equipment 
above  those  at  Palermo,  but  not  so  well  equipped  as  those  near  Messina. 
Floridia  is  some  12  miles  inland  from  Syracuse,  situated  in  a  very  fertile 
valley  of  lemon  groves,  the  half-dozen  factories  here  varying  in  size,  two 
being  of  considerable  importance;  all  are,  however,  devoid  of  mechanical 


ITALY  319 

improvements.  The  output  of  this  town  is  carted  to  Syracuse,  as  there  are 
no  railroad  connections. 

South  of  the  city  of  Syracuse  no  lemons  are  grown  until  Avola,  15  miles 
distant,  is  reached.  Here  is  situated  another  large  group  of  orchards;  the 
factories,  as  usual  clustered  about  the  town  itself,  are  below  the  average  size 
and  have  no  special  equipment.  Some  orange  oil  is  prepared  in  this  district 
and  large  quantities  of  peel  are  dried  and  sold  for  the  preparation  of  the 
liquor,  curaqao.1 

The  other  centers  in  this  district  are  Augusta,  with  one  factory  of  aver- 
age size;  Priolo,  with  two  small  places;  and  Melilli,  with  one.  Augusta  is 
18  miles  north  of  Syracuse,  on  the  coast,  and  is  the  center  of  the  salt  in- 
dustry; Priolo  is  between  Syracuse  and  Augusta,  some  miles  from  the  rail- 
road, while  Melilli  is  farther  inland,  situated  well  up  in  the  low  hills. 

The  lemon  products  of  the  district  find  their  way  to  market  through 
Messina,  with  which  there  is  direct  railroad  connection. 

The  industry  in  the  north-coast  towns. — The  remaining  district  to  be 
considered  is  the  heterogeneous  collection  of  towns  on  the  north  coast.  Here, 
again,  as  in  Palermo  and  Syracuse,  the  cultivation  of  the  lemon  takes  place 
in  isolated  groups  of  orchards  around  the  central  towns,  the  country  being 
very  mountainous  and  having  no  cultivated  strip  of  coast  land,  as  on  the 
south.  The  fruit  is  grown  in  the  valleys  between  the  spurs  of  hills,  all  of 
the  large  towns  being  near  the  Messina-Palermo  railroad  line,  which  winds 
along  the  seacoast. 

By  far  the  most  important  center,  in  fact  the  only  important  one  of  this 
region,  is  Barcelona,  a  small  inland  city  not  far  from  the  seaport  of  Milazzo. 
Here  are  some  three  factories,  employing  from  thirty  to  fifty  hands  each,  and 
a  few  more  of  smaller  size,  all  without  mechanical  equipment.  The  methods 
employed  are,  as  has  been  stated,  similar  to  those  of  the  Palermo  district,  the 
old  method  of  production  being  used  and  distilled  oil  manufactured  from 
residues. 

The  small  city  of  Patti,  the  next  largest  by-product  center,  is  west  of 
Barcelona,  2  miles  from  the  railroad  station  of  the  same  name.  There  are 
but  two  factories  here,  both  employing  approximately  thirty  hands  and,  as 
at  Barcelona,  producing  considerable  sweet  and  bitter  orange  oil. 

Farther  west  there  are  no  other  factories  until  Capo  d'Orlando  is  reached, 
at  which  place  are  several  of  small  size,  which  is  also  the  case  at  Santa 
Agata  di  Miletello.  The  factories  in  all  of  these  places  use  the  so-called 
new  or  two-piece  method  of  manufacture,  which  is  peculiar,  inasmuch  as 
they  are  situated  between  two  large  districts  using  the  other  method.  At 
Santa  Agata  di  Miletello  the  factories  do  not  produce  citrate  of  lime,  the 
lemon  juice  being  concentrated  in  copper  kettles  and  sold  to  liquor  and 
bitters  manufacturers  in  northern  Italy. 

The  commerce  of  the  north-coast  towns,  as  far  as  lemon  by-products  are 
concerned,  is  carried  on  through  Messina,  although  there  is  a  thriving  local 
seaport  town,  Milazzo.  While  the  district  covers  a  much  greater  territory 
than  that  covered  by  either  the  Palermo  or  Syracuse  districts,  it  produces  less 
oil  and  citrate  than  either.  The  season  is  more  nearly  like  that  of  the 

^ee  p.  305. 


32O  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

Palermo   district,   although   manufacturing   begins    somewhat   earlier   and 
ceases  sooner  than  in  that  district. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

There  are  two  chief  by-products  of  lemon  culture — the  essential  oil 
of  lemon  and  citrate  of  lime ;  besides  these,  lemon  peel  in  brine  and  con 
centrated  lemon  juice  are  of  lesser  importance.  Oil  of  lemon  is  used  very 
largely  for  flavoring  purposes,  it  finds  application  also  in  perfumes  and 
to  a  limited  extent  in  pharmaceutical  preparations;  the  greater  part  of 
that  imported  into  the  United  States,  however,  is  used  in  the  preparation 
of  the  ordinary  extract  of  lemon,  well  known  to  every  housewife.  Citrate 
of  lime,  or,  more  properly,  calcium  citrate,  is  an  intermediate  product  in 
the  manufacture  of  citric  acid.  In  the  lemon  juice  itself  the  acid  occurs 
in  the  free  state,  together  with  sugars  and  mucilaginous  bodies.  It  is  in 
order  to  free  it  from  these  that  it  is  combined  with  lime,  for  the  com- 
pound thus  formed  is  insoluble  and  precipitates  from  the  juice,  being 
finally  'separated  by  filtration.  This  product  must  then  be  again  treated 
in  order  to  free  it  from  lime  and  obtain  the  citric  acid  once  more  in  the 
free  state.  There  were  no  factories  in  Sicily  for  this  purpose  in  1909, 
although  the  Italian  government  was,  before  the  1909  earthquake,  making 
efforts  to  establish  a  plant  by  subsidy.1  The  product  at  that  time  was 
shipped  to  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States,  where  the  lime  salt 
was  decomposed  with  sulphuric  acid,  filtered  through  boneblack,  and 
crystallized  from  solution  in  water. 

The  salting  of  the  lemon  peel  is  usually  confined  to  those  districts  of 
Sicily  where  the  towns  are  upon  the  seacoast,  situated  near  sloping 
beaches,  so  that  sea  water  is  easily  obtainable.  It  is  not  usually  packed 
in  the  interior,  although  a  few  towns  near  Messina  have  some  little  trade 
in  this  line,  the  product  being  repacked  in  that  city.  Producers  in  Sicily 
claim  that  there  is  a  demand  for  three  separate  kinds  of  stock;  first, 
that  from  which  no  oil  has  been  removed;  second,  that  which  contains 
approximately  half  the  oil;  and,  last,  a  completely  exhausted  product. 
All  classes  are  consumed  in  the  bakers'  and  confectioners'  trades.  Where 
the  rinds  are  to  be  used  for  packing,  the  lemons  are  divided  lengthwise, 
the  pulp  removed  in  the  usual  way,  and  the  peel  packed  by  hand  as  firmly 
as  possible  in  large  hogsheads,  which  are  afterward  filled  with  sea  water 
and  re-enforced  by  the  addition  of  salt.2 

The  production  of  concentrated  juice  is  not  extensive,  the  factories 
being  small  and  the  methods  of  evaporation  extremely  crude.  In  those 

'See  pp.  146-50,  349,  354,  362. 
'See  pp.  110-12. 


ITALY  321 

at  Santa  Agata  di  Miletello  the  juice  is  pressed  from  the  pulp  and  filtered, 
as  in  the  manufacture  of  citrate  of  lime,  and  then  pumped  into  shallow 
tanks  supported  over  a  crude  fireplace.  Here  evaporation  takes  place 
over  a  wood  fire  until  the  required  consistency  is  obtained,  this  point 
being  ascertained  by  cooling  a  portion  of  the  juice  and  inserting  a  spindle. 
The  final  product,  a  very  dark  semi-syrup,  of  acid,  bitter,  and  smoky 
taste,  is  sold  to  liquor  and  bitters  producers  in  northern  Italy.  Besides 
the  two  factories  at  Santa  Agata  di  Miletello,  there  are  one  or  two  on 
the  Calabrian  mainland.  Altogether  the  industry  is  of  minor  importance. 

EQUIPMENT  OF  FACTORIES 

It  has  already  been  hinted  that  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  the  fac- 
tories in  Sicily  are  very  poorly,  even  crudely,  equipped,  the  nature  of  the 
operations  which  take  place  requiring  but  very  simple  apparatus.  In  the 
preparation  of  oil,  machinery  is  not  used  except  in  the  few  factories  which 
are  situated  in  Calabria. 

For  the  manufacture  of  citrate,  a  crusher,  as  shown  in  Plate  XVIII 
(left),  a  filtering  device  for  juice  and  another  for  citrate,  a  precipi- 
tating tank  supplied  with  a  heating  coil,  an  oven  or  heating  room,  and  a 
small  juice  pump  only  are  necessary.  This  apparatus  is  usually  arranged 
to  fit  into  quarters  originally  intended  for  other  purposes;  the  crusher 
and  filter  presses  on  substantial  foundations  near  the  room  where  the 
cutting  of  the  fruit  takes  place,  near  the  latter  a  juice  tank  and  pump, 
while  the  precipitating  tank  is  also  near  by,  as  the  pumping  is  usually 
done  by  hand  in  the  heating  room  wherever  convenient. 

In  many  of  the  smaller  factories  a  loft  is  floored  off  and  the  space 
thus  provided  used  for  extraction  of  the  oil,  the  room  often  being  scarcely 
6  ft.  high  in  the  center,  dark,  and  ill  ventilated.  On  the  north  coast, 
where  the  work  takes  place  at  night  (from  midnight  to  8  or  9  o'clock  in 
the  morning),  this  place  also  serves  as  sleeping-quarters  for  the  sponge 
men.  The  custom  of  preparing  the  oil  at  night  seems  confined  to  the 
Palermo  and  north-coast  towns.  The  explanation  given  for  this  method 
of  operation  is  that  the  sunlight  has  a  deleterious  effect  upon  the  oil,  but 
a  more  probable  cause  is  the  fact  that  the  sponging  operation  can  take 
place  at  night  with  less  trouble  than  any  of  the  other  processes  in  by- 
product manufacture  and  that  the  same  workman  can  thereby  work  dur- 
ing both  daylight  and  darkness. 

PREPARATION   OF  THE  FRUIT 

The  preparation  of  the  fruit  differs  somewhat  in  the  different  districts, 
and  while  the  variation  seems  slight  it  undoubtedly  affects  the  length  of 


322  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

the  operation  and  perhaps  the  quality  of  the  oil  produced.  In  the  Syra- 
cuse, Etna,  and  Messina  districts  and  in  Patti  and  Santa  Agata  di 
Miletello,  north-coast  towns,  a  method  known  as  the  "two  piece"  is  used. 
In  Palermo  and  Barcelona  the  process  used  is  called  "three  piece,"  al- 
though some  factories  in  the  latter  city  use  the  other  method.  The 
difference  between  the  two  lies  in  the  manner  of  removing  the  rind  from 
the  fruit.  In  the  former  the  lemon  is  halved  and  the  pulp  removed  from 
these  halves;  in  the  other  the  peel  is  pared  off  in  three  longitudinal 
strips.  The  three-piece  method  of  preparing  the  fruit  is  shown  in  Plate 
XIX  (upper).  When  the  fruit  arrives  at  the  factory  it  is  dumped  into 
large  bins,  around  which  sit  the  cutters,  who  divide  the  lemons  in  halves 
or  pare  them,  according  to  the  method  used.  An  ordinary  cheap  kitchen 
paring-knife  is  used  for  this  purpose,  the  operators  being  women,  girls, 
and  boys  on  the  south  coast ;  on  the  north  coast  women  and  children  are 
seldom  employed.  The  work  is  carried  on  very  rapidly  where  the  fruit 
is  halved  crosswise,  the  lemon  being  cut  and  tossed  into  the  tub  with  a 
single  motion  of  the  arm.  Where  the  peel  is  to  be  salted  down,  the  fruit 
is  divided  from  end  to  end,  and  the  time  consumed  is  relatively  longer, 
as  is  also  the  case  where  it  is  pared.  The  next  step  in  the  process  is 
naturally  omitted  where  the  latter  method  is  used.  The  half  lemons  are 
thrown  upon  shallow  troughs,  on  each  side  of  which  stand  the  operators 
provided  with  baskets  for  holding  the  peel.  The  instrument  used  con- 
sists of  a  sharp,  slightly  concave  disk  firmly  fastened  on  the  end  of  a 
stout  sickle-shaped  wire,  provided  at  the  opposite  end  with  a  wooden 
handle.  The  disk  is  skilfully  slipped  between  the  pulp  and  rind  of  the 
lemon,  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  forced  toward  the  end  with  a  circular 
motion  of  both  the  instrument  and  fruit. 

When  sufficiently  far  advanced,  a  quick  jerk  removes  the  pulp,  the 
separation  being  complete  and  the  rind  unbroken. 

The  operators  are  usually  paid  by  the  basket  of  resulting  peel;  in 
1909  the  women  made  from  20  to  40  cents  a  day,  while  the  children,  who 
do  the  cutting,  rarely  made  over  15  cents,  often  as  low  as  5  cents.  The 
prices  now  paid  for  this  labor  are  higher  as  is  shown  on  page  216.  Where 
the  lemons  are  pared  the  separation  is  much  less  complete,  there  being 
always  considerable  pulp  left  on  the  rinds  and  some  little  rind  at  the  ends 
of  the  pared  fruit.  As  a  result  of  this,  some  little  lemon  juice  becomes 
mixed  with  the  extracted  oil,  and  after  the  extraction  of  the  oil  from  the 
peel  the  latter  is  therefore  mixed  with  the  fruit  pulp  from  which  citrate 
of  lime  is  to  be  made. 

This  method  is  not  practical  in  the  United  States  because  of  higher 
wages. 


ITALY  323 

EXTRACTION  OF  THE  ESSENTIAL  OIL1 

In  both  methods  of  operation  the  peel  is  thrown  into  large  wicker 
baskets,  which,  when  full,  are  dipped  into  a  reservoir  of  cold  water  and 
thoroughly  shaken  to  remove  the  excess.  This  washing  is  said  to  wilt 
the  rind  and  render  a  complete  extraction  of  the  oil  possible.  However 
this  may  be,  it  is  certain  that  fruit  treated  in  this  manner  and  allowed  to 
stand  for  several  hours  yields  relatively  more  oil  than  that  worked  up 
immediately  after  separation  from  the  pulp.  At  this  stage,  the  pulp 
and  peel  having  been  separated,  the  former  is  sent  to  the  crusher  to  be 
converted  finally  into  citrate  of  lime,  the  latter  to  sponge  men,  who 
extract  the  oil. 

The  extraction  by  the  sponging  process  is  not  essentially  different 
with  the  different  forms  of  peel,  the  operators  sitting  upon  low  stools 
with  an  earthenware  bowl  between  the  feet,  a  pile  of  peel  in  front  of 
them,  and  a  basket  for  the  exhausted  material  at  one  side.  The  bowl  is 
about  a  foot  in  diameter,  provided  with  a  deep  lip,  directly  beneath  which 
is  a  small,  round,  concave  depression  which  serves  when  the  bowl  is 
tilted  forward,  in  pouring  out  its  contents,  to  hold  back  the  settlings  of 
juice  and  precipitated  matter.  Across  the  top  is  placed  a  stick  so  notched 
as  to  fit  tightly  on  the  sides ;  resting  upon  it  are  the  sponges,  which  differ 
somewhat  according  to  the  manner  of  preparing  the  peel.  Where  the 
fruit  is  cut  crosswise,  a  large,  flat  sponge  is  surmounted  by  a  smaller 
concave  one,  shaped  somewhat  like  a  brimless  slouch  hat,  the  half  lemon 
being  placed  within  this  sponge  when  pressed.  When  the  lemon  is  cut  in 
the  other  direction,  a  large,  heavy  sponge  rests  upon  the  flat  one  and  the 
fruit  is  pressed,  colored  side  down,  into  it.  This  method  is  also  followed 
where  the  rind  has  been  pared  from  the  fruit.  With  the  first  method  the 
half  rind  is  held  in  the  right  hand  between  the  thumb  and  first  two  fingers 
and  inserted  in  the  wide  aperture  of  the  concave  sponge,  whereupon  the 
latter  is  pressed  upon  with  the  left  hand,  the  weight  of  the  body  being 
thrown  into  the  motion.  The  pressure  is  relieved,  the  peel  turned  partly 
over  with  the  right  hand,  and  the  pressing  repeated.  The  same  opera- 
tion is  carried  on  once  or  twice  more,  the  rind  thus  receiving  three  or 
four  pressings.  Where  the  concave  sponge  is  not  used,  the  peel  or  slices 
are  pressed  face  downward  on  the  other  sponge  with  the  right  hand,  the 
left  being  used  to  keep  the  sponge  in  place,  the  same  amount  of  force 
and  number  of  pressings  being  required  in  either  case. 

The  sponging  process  is  somewhat  varied  where  the  three-piece 
method  is  used,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  pulp  left  adhering  to  the  rind. 
A  shallow,  glazed  bowl  is  placed  upon  the  one  ordinarily  used  and  the 
*For  physical  and  chemical  properties,  see  pp.  21-36. 


324  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

notched  stick  fitted  to  it  so  that  the  mixture  of  juice  and  oil  is  received 
directly  here.  At  the  end  of  the  operation  the  sponges  are  thoroughly 
squeezed  out  by  hand  and  the  lemon  oil  separated  from  the  juice  by  tilt- 
ing forward  the  glazed  bowl  over  the  other  and  violently  blowing  the 
breath  upon  the  surface  of  the  mixture  until  the  oil  has  been  carried 
over  into  the  lower  bowl.  In  this  operation  some  juice  and  residue  are 
found  mixed  with  the  oil,  and  this  is  separated  finally  in  the  larger  bowl 
by  carefully  tilting  forward  and  repeating  the  blowing  operation.  The 
small  amount  of  juice  and  residue  now  present  is  caught  by  the  depres- 
sion in  this  bowl  and  the  oil  is  received  in  a  measuring  bottle.  The 
operation  where  the  two-piece  method  is  used  is  very  similar ;  the  oil  and 
what  little  moisture  and  residue  are  extracted  are  caught  in  the  earthen- 
ware bowl  and  separated  as  indicated. 

The  oil  in  either  case  is  allowed  to  settle  for  twenty-four  hours  or 
longer,  filtered  through  paper,  and  stored  in  large  copper  containers; 
that  made  by  the  three-piece  method  is  said  to  keep  longer  without 
becoming  turbid. 

TREATMENT  OF  THE  RESIDUES 

The  treatment  of  the  residues  resulting  from  both  methods  is  differ- 
ent; with  the  two-piece  method  they  are  passed  through  a  conical  cloth 
filter  and  the  oil  and  water  received  in  an  earthenware  bowl,  where  they 
are  separated  in  the  usual  way.  The  filter  is  tied  at  the  top  and  placed 
under  a  hand  press,  where  the  last  traces  of  oil  and  water  are  expressed. 
The  residues  from  the  three-piece  process,  which  are  relatively  greater 
in  amount  than  by  the  other  method,  are  placed  in  small  copper  stills, 
diluted  with  water,  and  distilled.  The  still  is  made  in  two  parts,  the  pot 
being  about  2  ft.  high,  narrowing  abruptly  to  a  3-in.  aperture  at  the  top, 
over  which  the  condensing  part  fits  tightly,  the  joint  being  cemented  each 
time  with  clay.  The  latter  part  is  a  basin,  whose  straight  sides  are  con- 
tinued a  short  distance  beyond  the  concave  bottom,  after  which  they 
converge  similarly  to  the  sides  of  a  funnel.  It  is  provided  with  two 
spouts,  one  of  which  enters  under  the  bottom  into  what  becomes  the 
condensing  chamber  of  the  still;  the  other  enters  above  and  is  used  to 
draw  off  the  water  placed  in  the  basin  in  order  to  cool  the  vapor  coming 
in  contact  with  it  during  the  distillation.  The  condensation  is  further 
aided  by  wrapping  the  other  spout  with  rags,  over  which  the  attendant 
pours  cold  water  from  time  to  time. 

The  oil  obtained  by  this  process  is  water  white,  of  disagreeable  odor 
and  abnormal  chemical  characteristics ;  having  no  sale  in  the  pure  state 
it  is  invariably  mixed  either  by  producer  or  broker  with  the  hand-pressed 
product.  The  filtration  method  undoubtedly  gives  the  best  results,  for 


ITALY  325 

if  the  residues  are  treated  immediately  the  resulting  oil  can  scarcely  be 
distinguished  from  the  original.  Distilled  oil  is  produced  only  at  Bar- 
celona and  Palermo ;  in  all  other  districts  the  residues  are  filtered. 

MACHINE-MADE  ESSENTIAL  OIL 

The  manufacture  of  lemon  oil  by  machine  is  confined  to  the  mainland 
of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Calabria.  As  has  been  said,  large  amounts 
of  bergamot  oil  are  made  here,  and  it  is  with  the  machine  used  in  this 
industry  that  lemon  oil  is  produced.  The  bergamot  is  shaped  more  like 
an  orange  than  a  lemon,  being  nearly  round,  so  that  the  apparatus  has  to 
be  slightly  modified  in  order  to  use  it  on  the  latter  fruit.  The  modifica- 
tion consists  in  removing  the  flat  disks  and  substituting  concave  ones  for 
them. 

The  machine  itself,  shown  in  Plate  XX  (left),  consists  of  a  stand 
supporting  two  upright  arms  united  by  a  cross-beam  at  the  top.  On  the 
inside  of  one  of  these  uprights  is  hung  a  large  cogged  wooden  fly  wheel 
geared  against  a  cylinder,  the  sides  of  which  are  upright  spokes  fitting 
into  the  cogs  of  the  fly  wheel.  To  the  under  side  of  this  cylinder  is 
bolted  a  corrugated  disk,  shown  in  Plate  XX  (right),  fitted  so  as  to 
revolve  above  a  like  stationary  one  at  the  bottom  of  the  machine.  An 
arrangement  for  raising  and  lowering  the  upper  disk  is  provided  for  by 
an  arm  fastened  to  the  cylinder  and  extending  over  a  cross-piece  at  the 
rear.  This  arm  is  so  weighted  as  to  regulate  the  pressure  brought  to 
bear  upon  the  fruit  which  is  placed  between  the  upper  and  lower  disks. 
When  it  is  lowered,  the  upper  disk  is  raised  and  the  lemons,  which  must 
be  of  uniform  size,  are  placed  within.  The  lever  is  then  raised,  lowering 
the  disk  upon  the  fruit,  and  the  outside  fly  wheel  is  turned  by  hand. 
After  two  minutes  it  is  stopped  and  the  fruit  removed,  each  lemon  being 
carefully  wiped  off  with  a  sponge.  The  grated  rind  and  oil  are  received 
in  a  large  pan  set  beneath  the  machine  and  subsequently  filtered  through 
cloth  filters,  the  residue  being  placed  under  hand  presses  to  express  the 
last  traces  of  oil  and  moisture. 

Oil  manufactured  in  this  way  is  not  in  the  least  inferior  to  the  hand- 
pressed  product  and  has  the  added  advantage  of  a  much  richer  color, 
being  used  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  up  the  color  of  the  latter. 
The  machine  is  not  used  on  lemons  until  after  the  close  of  the  bergamot 
season,  lemons  ripening  before  that  time  being  sold  to  Sicilian  buyers. 

CITRATE  OF  LIME1 

After  the  pulp  of  the  lemon  has  been  removed  from  the  rind  it  is 
conveyed  to  a  crusher,  sometimes  power-driven,  but  in  a  vast  majority 
'See  pp.  149-50. 


326  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

of  factories  run  by  hand.  A  crushing  machine  is  shown  in  Plate  XVIII 
(left).  The  ordinary  type  consists  of  a  hopper  leading  into  wooden 
rollers  and  a  small  chute  for  carrying  off  the  crushed  pulp,  the  whole 
being  placed  over,  or  very  near,  a  juice  tank,  into  which  the  drippings 
flow.  The  crushed  pulp  is  shoveled  into  large,  circular,  straw  filtering- 
mats  and  pounded  down  firmly  with  wooden  rams.  These  mats  are 
closely  woven  of  coarse  straw  and  have  a  circular  opening  at  the  top; 
after  being  filled  they  are  placed  one  upon  another  in  stacks  of  four  to 
twelve  under  hand  presses  of  large  size.  The  presses  are  set,  often  by 
the  aid  of  a  windlass,  and  the  combined  pressing  and  filtration  proceeds 
until  the  flow  of  juice  ceases,  the  presses  being  set  down  several  times 
during  the  operation.  A  press  and  filtering-mats  are  shown  in  Plate 
XVIII  (right).  The  juice  is  led  into  the  juice  tank,  from  whence  it  is 
pumped,  usually  by  hand,  into  a  large  vat  provided  with  suitable  heating 
arrangements  consisting  of  direct  fire,  steam  coil,  or,  in  one  or  two 
instances,  leading  steam  directly  into  the  juice.  In  this  tank  the  acidity 
of  the  juice  is  neutralized  by  means  of  lime  water,  the  point  of  neutrality 
being  ascertained  by  the  use  of  litmus  paper,  and  after  heating  for 
several  hours  the  juice  is  run  off  into  the  filtering  tank  while  still  hot. 
The  latter  tank  is  provided  with  a  false  bottom  of  wooden  latticework, 
over  which  is  spread  a  special  filtering-cloth ;  the  citrate  of  lime,  which 
is  deposited  in  a  voluminous  white  powder,  is  retained  by  this  cloth,  while 
the  waste  liquor  runs  through  and  is  discarded.  When  this  liquor  has 
sufficiently  drained  off,  the  deposit  is  shoveled  into  a  small  filtering-bag 
and  placed  in  stacks  beneath  a  small  press,  where  the  excess  is  further 
removed.  It  is  usually  readily  removed  from  these  sacks  to  iron  pans  in 
which  it  goes  to  the  drying  oven.  This  oven  is  a  small  room,  ventilated 
at  the  top,  around  the  sides  of  which  are  built  tiers  of  iron  frames  for 
holding  the  pans.  In  the  center  of  the  room  is  a  gigantic  charcoal  burner, 
which  supplies  the  heat  for  the  evaporation,  from  six  to  forty-eight  hours' 
drying  being  necessary,  depending  upon  its  size.  The  thoroughly  dried 
cake,  containing  over  60  per  cent  of  citric  acid,  is  broken  into  small  pieces 
and  packed  in  hogsheads  holding  about  675  Ib.  each.  An  interior  view 
of  a  by-product  factory  is  shown  in  Plate  XIX  (lower). 

The  method  of  disposing  of  this  product  is  very  similar  to  that  used 
with  essential  oils;  small  or  large  lots  are  offered  to  brokerage  firms, 
accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  analysis  showing  the  actual  content  of 
citric  acid.  Exportation  is  nearly  always  through  one  of  these  houses, 
and  there  seems  to  be  little  or  no  effort  to  market  the  output  co-oper- 
atively. The  product  is  purchased  on  the  citric-acid  content  by  the  large 
chemical  supply  houses  in  Germany,  England,  and  the  United  States. 


FIELD   MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,  VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XIX. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Bull.  160) 

PARING  LEMONS,   THREE-PIECE  METHOD,    PALERMO,   SICILY. 
This  method  is  used  only  in  the  Palermo  district  and  at  Barcelona. 


(Powell  and  Chace,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agric.  Bull.  160) 


INTERIOR  OF  LEMON  PRODUCT  FACTORY,    SYRACUSE,   SICILY. 
This  shows  one  of  the  few  factories  in  Italy  using  mechanical  devices  for  handling  the  fruit. 


ITALY  327 

COSTS  OF  PRODUCTION 

The  quantity  of  the  by-products  obtained  from  a  given  number  of 
fresh  lemons  will  depend  upon  the  quality  of  the  fruit,  the  season  of  the 
year,  the  time  which  has  elapsed  between  the  gathering  and  working  up, 
and  the  efficiency  of  the  latter  process.  When  allowed  to  ripen  upon  the 
tree,  the  lemon  loses  a  considerable  part  of  its  acidity  and  the  oil  is  also 
less  in  quantity  and  of  an  inferior  grade.  Where  the  fruit  is  broken  or 
bruised  in  handling,  the  yield  of  oil  is  diminished,  and  this  is  also  the  case 
where  a  number  of  days  are  allowed  to  elapse  between  picking  and  work- 
ing up.  The  content  of  citric  acid  is  not  lessened  by  these  faults,  however. 
On  the  average  quality  of  fruit,  100  Ib.  of  oil  and  675  Ib.  of  citrate  of 
lime,  containing  430  Ib.  of  citric  acid,  can  be  produced  from  100,000 
lemons.  The  average  price  for  these  substances  varies  from  $80  to  $100 
for  the  oil  and  $75  to  $95  for  the  citrate.1 

The  cost  of  production  is  very  difficult  to  estimate  and  will,  of  course, 
vary  in  every  locality  and  almost  with  every  factory.  In  the  consular 
reports  of  the  late  Dr.  Cheney  he  estimates  the  average  value  of  lemons 
to  the  grower  in  Sicily  in  1908  at  $150  per  100,000.  The  fruit  going  for 
by-products  is  the  lowest  grade,  however,  and  according  to  Chace  and 
Powell  in  1909  did  not  average  over  $100  per  100,000,  leaving  a  gross 
profit  to  the  by-product  producer  at  that  time  of  from  $50  to  $100.  One 
sponge  man  can  produce  between  2  and  3  Ib.  of  oil  per  day,  for  which  he 
then  received  about  30  cents,  making  the  cost  of  extracting  the  oil  from 
100,000  lemons  from  $10  to  $15.  Other  processes  about  the  factory  are 
much  cheaper,  and,  at  the  prevailing  wages  of  workmen  in  1909,  $5  to 
$10  additional  was  a  liberal  estimate  for  other  expenses,  leaving  a  profit 
of  from  $30  to  $70  jointly  on  100  Ib.  of  oil  and  a  pipe  of  citrate  of  lime. 

The  cost  of  production  of  both  lemons  and  lemon  products  more 
than  doubled  between  1914  and  1919.  The  wages  paid  fruit  packers  in 
1914  was  3.60  lire  ($0.69)  per  nine-hour  day;  in  1919  8  lire  ($1.64) 
per  eight-hour  day,  and  i  .20  lire  for  every  hour  overtime.  Packers  agree 
to  pack  not  less  than  five  boxes  per  hour  or  forty  boxes  per  day,  but 
rarely  pack  more  than  thirty  to  thirty-two  boxes. 

Fruit  pickers  in  1914  received  3  lire  for  a  ten-hour  day,  while  in 
1919  they  received  8  lire  for  an  eight-hour  day. 

Farm  laborers  such  as  tree  pruners,  etc.,  formerly  were  paid  3  lire 
per  day,  while  in  1919  they  secured  10  lire  per  eight-hour  day. 

Freight  rates,  on  the  other  hand,  have  been  kept  rather  low,  par- 
ticularly those  to  New  York — $0.54  a  box.  The  rate  to  England  is  $1.37 

'See  pp.  349,  353,  362,  363,  366-68,  372. 


328  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

a  box.  The  high  rate  of  exchange  against  the  Italian  lira  since  the  war 
has  also  been  of  benefit  to  the  lemon  exporter. 

The  cost  of  boxes  and  barrels  has  more  than  doubled  since  1914 
while  the  cost  of  containers  for  essential  oils  is  almost  prohibitive,  as 
these  containers  are  made  of  copper. 

The  comparative  costs  of  lemon  product  production  between  the 
United  States  and  Sicily  are  found  in  chapter  xi,  on  pages  213-14. 

VARYING  TRADE  SYSTEMS SPECULATION 

The  methods  of  conducting  the  very  important  trade  in  lemon  prod- 
ucts varies  in  the  different  provinces  of  Sicily,  that  prevailing  in  the 
province  of  Messina  being  especially  worthy  of  description,  because 
through  the  port  of  Messina  by  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  lemon  de- 
rivatives of  the  island  is  exported.  Thus,  statistics  show  that  of  the  total 
exports  of  citrate  of  lime  and  concentrated  lemon  juice,  there  were  ex- 
ported through  Messina  75  per  cent  in  1906-7.  Messina  also  exports 
an  average  of  77  per  cent  of  the  total  exportations  of  essential  oils  of 
the  kingdom. 

The  system  which  has  been  in  vogue  in  Messina  province  for  many 
years  depends  on  a  series  of  advances,  extending  from  the  merchant,  or 
actual  exporter,  down,  through  the  manufacturer  to  the  orchard  owner, 
or  grower  of  the  lemons.  The  latter  is  usually  not  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  lemon  derivatives,  but  sells  his  fruit  outright  on  the  trees, 
generally  months  before  maturity.  Thus  a  typical  transaction  would  be 
as  follows :  The  manufacturer  goes  to  the  merchant,  or  exporter,  and 
contracts  to  furnish  so  much  citrate  of  lime,  of  a  certain  standard  quality 
and  perhaps  with  the  same  firm,  so  much  essential  oil  of  lemon.  He 
then  receives  on  the  spot  a  certain  percentage  of  the  agreed  price  (usually 
about  25  to  30  per  cent),  with  which  he  in  turn  pays  an  advance  to  secure 
the  entire  crop  of  an  orchard,  or  only  contracts  for  a  supply  of  refuse 
lemons,  and  is  able  to  partly  defray  expenses  of  manufacture.  Upon  de- 
livery of  the  goods  he  is  either  at  once  paid  the  balance  of  the  fixed 
price,  less  a  fair  rate  of  interest  on  the  money  advanced,  or  receives  a 
further  percentage,  the  balance  to  fall  due  some  months  later,  or  when 
the  goods  are  finally  sold  for  export,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
contract.  This  advance  system  obtains  in  all  the  provinces  of  Sicily  and 
in  Calabria.  Naturally  the  merchants  who  give  the  advances  are  in 
return  given  the  preference  in  the  sale  of  the  goods. 

Lemons  are  usually  sold  by  the  thousand;  essence,  or  essential  oil 
of  lemon,  by  weight,  in  copper  containers  of,  generally,  i,  5,  and  25  Ib. 
capacity;  citrate  of  lime  in  pipes  containing  305  kilos  (672  Ib.). 


ITALY  329 

Under  the  influence  of  speculation  during  "boom"  periods,  especially 
marked  in  1907,  prices  of  citrate  of  lime  and  of  oil  of  lemon  may  be 
suddenly  forced  up  and  artificially  maintained,  without  any  sound  com- 
mercial reason.  It  is  this  speculation  which,  it  is  claimed,  more  than 
anything  else,  precipitated  the  disturbed  state  of  affairs  in  1909. 

On  July  8,  1903,  a  law  was  passed,  whereby  certain  banks  were 
authorized  to  make  advances  up  to  two-thirds  of  the  ruling  market  value 
of  lemon  derivatives  against  certificates  of  deposit  of  goods.  Upon  this 
three  corporations  were  formed  in  Sicily,  whose  scope  and  object,  ac- 
cording to  their  charters,  were  to  prevent  speculation,  to  endeavor  to  keep 
prices  steady,  and  to  establish  a  minimum  price  whereby  all  branches  of 
the  trade  might  be  enabled  to  conduct  a  prosperous  business.  These 
corporate  bodies  were  known  as  "Societa  di-Acireale,"  "Societa  Sicula" 
and  "Societa  di  Palermo."  For  some  time  these  societies  did  good  work 
in  assuring  to  their  members  a  certain  minimum  price,  and  abstained  from 
speculation,  but  in  1907,  noting  the  large  profits  being  gained  by  outside 
interests,  they  abandoned  their  conservative  methods  and  sought  to  also 
enter  the  speculative  field.  Buying,  especially  citrate  of  lime,  at  steadily 
increasing  prices  and  holding  on  to  their  purchases  in  the  hope  of  still 
greater  profit,  the  speculators  were  caught  at  the  time  of  the  financial 
crisis  in  the  United  States  with  a  considerable  stock  which  they  were 
unable  to  dispose  of.  At  the  close  of  the  year,  instead  of  a  normal  stock 
of  a  few  hundreds  the  purchasers  had  on  hand  some  3,000  pipes  of 
citrate  of  lime.  This  large  surplus  had  been  accumulated  at  prices  rang- 
ing from  700  to  750  lire  ($135.10  to  $144.75)  per  pipe,  and  the  fall  in 
the  market  inflicted  serious  losses  on  the  societies.  Still  worse  was  the 
plight  of  individual  speculators,  some  of  whom,  it  is  said,  lost  absolutely 
all  they  possessed  in  the  great  and  rapid  depreciation  of  values. 

To  illustrate  the  fluctuation  to  which  the  market  has  been  subject,  the 
following  statement  showing  the  average  prices  of  citrate  of  lime  for 
nine  years  is  given,  the  prices  reduced  to  United  States  currency,  being 
per  quintal  of  220  Ib. :  1889,  $26.25;  1900,  $24.12;  1901,  $25.28;  1902, 
$20.10;  1903,  $22.20;  1904,  $24.12;  1905,  $26.05;  1906,  $32.81 ;  1907, 
$42.46.  Later  prices  are  listed  on  pages  353,  362. 

Oil  of  lemon  in  1907  reached  a  price  of  over  97  cents  per  Sicilian 
pound  (12  oz.)  ;  in  1909  it  was  about  40  cents.1 

THE   1908  LAW   FOR  THE  CENTRALIZATION  OF  THE  TRADE 

A  law  was  enacted  on  June  5,  1908,  whereby  a  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber 
(Camera  Agrumaria)  was  established,  the  object  of  this  being  to  central- 

^or  further  discussion  and  prices,  see  pp.  235-39,  349,  363,  372. 


330  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

ize  the  sale  of  citrate  of  lime  and  lemon  juice  under  the  direct  control  of 
the  Chamber,  making  all  goods  not  sold  through  the  Chamber  subject  to 
a  tax,  estimated  at  25  to  30  per  cent  of  the  normal  value,  whereas  goods 
sold  to  the  Chamber  only  pays  a  commission  of  2  per  cent.  The  effect 
of  this  obstacle  to  the  unrestricted  interchange  of  goods,  the  consequences 
of  which  was  not  foreseen  by  the- trade,  was  to  stop  the  usual  advances 
hitherto  given  by  the  merchants.  It  is  to  be  noted  that  the  Chamber 
was  not  to  make  any  such  advances  until  the  goods  were  actually  deliv- 
ered ;  indeed  it  would  not  be  financially  able  to  do  so,  as  it  only  had  a 
capital  of  about  $40,000;  while  the  merchants,  in  the  aggregate,  em- 
ployed a  capital  of  many  times  as  much  in  making  these  advances  before 
delivery.  The  number  of  manufacturers  of  citrate  in  Calabria  and 
Sicily  is  about  250,  the  majority  of  whom  possess  but  limited  capital, 
and  their  competition  contributed  considerably  to  keep  up  the  prices  of 
lemons.  Not  being  able  to  buy  for  lack  of  advances,  the  number  of  pur- 
chasers of  refuse  fruit  diminished,  and  it  is  claimed  that  this  law 
injured  these  manufacturers  and  indirectly  the  lemon  growers. 

According  to  the  treaties  of  commerce  between  Italy  and  Germany, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Switzerland,  Italy  is  bound  to  lay  no  export  tax 
on  its  products.  The  tax,  therefore,  in  favor  of  this  Chamber  was  laid 
in  the  form  of  a  tax  for  analysis,  the  legality  of  which  was  questioned. 
This  seemed  an  evasion  of  the  treaties  with  the  countries  mentioned. 
The  treaty  with  the  United  States  contained  the  "most- favored-nation" 
clause,  and  the  legality  of  the  foregoing  tax  might  have  therefore  been 
contested. 

Victor  Emmanuel  III,  By  the  Grace  of  God  and  by  the  Will  of  the  Nation 
King  of  Italy. 

The  senate  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies  have  approved :  We  have  sanctioned 
and  do  promulgate  as  follows : 

ARTICLE  I 

A  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  (Camera  Agrumaria),  with  its  seat  at  Messina,  is  estab- 
lished, which  has  for  its  scope  the  protecting  and  furthering  of  the  interests  relating 
to  the  production  of,  and  commerce  in  the  citrus  fruits  and  the  facilitating  of  the 
manufacture  of,  and  trade  in  the  citrus-derivatives.  To  which  end  the  following 
functions  are  accorded  to  the  Chamber  : 

(a)  To  study  and  promote  the  provisionary  measures  for  the  development  and 
regulation  of  the  commerce  in  the  citrus  fruits  and  their  derivatives ; 

(&)  To  undertake  and  furnish  to  interested  parties  information  regarding  the 
conditions  of  the  principal  markets  and  regarding  the  quantity  of  fruit  in  situ  or  in 
transit ; 

(c)  To  facilitate  and  further  the  direct  relations  of  exchange  between  the 
producers  and  consumers  of  citrus  fruit  and  derivatives ; 

(d)  To  develop  the  consumption  of  the  derivatives  of  citrus  fruit,  seeking  for 
them  new  outlets,  or  new  uses  or  applications ; 

(e)  To  guarantee  by  issuance  of  certificates  of  analysis,  given  by  chemical 
laboratories  of  the  citrus  fruit  chamber  or  by  others  recognized  by  the  same,  the 


•5 

2 

<r>     % 

UJ       « 
I     1 


II 


Q  ? 

co  a 

. .  uj 

a  co 

3 

S  CO 

8  it 

•fS  co 

O  Fi 


<     g   c 

E   -p  -2 
S     S  +? 


<  A 


Ei       O    O 

" 


=  HI 

w  >>  S 

Z  M      O     g, 

I  5  H 


<  -s 


ITALY  331 

genuineness  and  the  quality  of  the  citrate  of  lime  and  of  the  concentrated  juice  pro- 
duced in  the  kingdom,  whether  for  internal  consumption  or  for  exportation ; 

(/)  To  attend,  for  account  of  the  producers  who  may  make  request  for  it, 
and  in  the  forms  established  by  this  law,  to  the  sale  of  citrate  of  lime  and  of  con- 
centrated juice  which  has  been  delivered  to  said  Chamber  for  that  purpose  by  the 
producers  themselves ; 

(g)  To  promote,  wherever  necessary,  the  establishment  of  general  store- 
houses for  the  citrus-derivatives  in  the  centers  of  production  which  are  unprovided 
with  such  store-houses ; 

(h)  To  make  advances  upon  the  deposits  of  citrus-derivatives  or  upon  certifi- 
cates of  deposit  of  the  derivatives  themselves  in  the  general  store-houses,  within  the 
limits  and  in  accordance  with  the  regulations  laid  down  by  this  law ; 

(»)  To  promote  and  facilitate  the  establishment  and  operation  of  factories  for 
citric  acid,  candied  fruits  and  other  products  derived  from  the  citrus  fruits ; 

(/)  To  promote  the  formation  of  a  citrus  fruit  Bank,  which  may  make  ad- 
vances upon  deposit  to  the  citrus  producers  and  manufacturers. 

The  functions  of  the  Chamber  as  detailed  in  Sections  "e"  and  "/"  may  be,  by 
royal  decree,  extended  to  other  derivatives  of  the  citri. 

ARTICLE  II 

There  are  established  five  sections  of  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  whose  seats 
shall  be,  respectively,  in  Palermo,  Catania,  Messina,  Siracusa  and  Reggio,  Calabria. 

Each  section  is  composed  of  three  members  chosen  among  the  larger  producers 
of  citrus  fruit,  two  nominated  by  the  provincial  Deputation,  and  one  by  the  local 
Chamber  of  Commerce. 

Until  it  shall  have  been  otherwise  provided  by  special  laws  to  be  presented  by 
the  30th  of  June,  1909,  for  the  organization  of  elected  representation  by  an  assembly 
of  delegates  of  the  producers,  the  Chamber  shall  consist  of  nine  members,  of  whom 
five  shall  be  chosen  respectively  by  the  sections  from  among  their  own  members ;  the 
other  four  shall  be  chosen  by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce 
from  the  class  of  the  citrus  cultivators  after  hearing  from  the  issue  Banks. 

The  members  of  the  sections  and  of  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  must  possess 
Italian  Citizenship. 

In  case  the  appointments  are  not  made  by  the  time  established  by  the  Minister 
of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  the  same  Minister  shall  provide  for  the 
nomination  of  the  counsellors. 

The  counsellors,  thus  nominated,  shall  elect  from  among  themselves  by  secret 
ballot  and  absolute  majority  of  votes,  the  president  and  vice-president. 

ARTICLE  III 

The  office  of  counsellor  of  the  Chamber  is  gratuitous. 

The  Chamber  shall  appoint  a  technical  manager,  a  secretary  and  the  other 
requisite  employees  for  its  operation,  within  the  limits  of  the  plan  to  be  approved 
by  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  by  whom  moreover  the 
salaries  for  the  said  force  must  be  approved. 

ARTICLE  IV 

Commencing  with  the  fifteenth  day  following  the  first  formation  of  the 
Chamber,  citrate  of  lime  and  concentrated  juice  shall  not  be  admitted  for  transport 
upon  the  railroads  or  for  shipment  in  the  ports  of  the  Kingdom,  if  they  are  not 
accompanied  by  a  certificate  of  analysis  issued  by  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber. 

Exception  is  made  for  shipments  sent  to  the  magazines  appertaining  to  the  said 
Chamber,  or  made  in  view  of  transportation  or  concentration  of  the  products  in 
magazines  in  which  the  said  products  are  to  remain  while  awaiting  sale  for  consump- 
tion or  for  exportation.  In  these  cases  the  circulation  of  said  products  must  be 
effected  according  to  the  instructions  which  shall  be  established  by  the  rules  of  ad- 
ministration for  assuring  the  payment  of  the  Chamber  tax,  in  accordance  with 
Article  II,  when  they  may  be  sold  for  consumption  or  exportation. 


332  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

ARTICLE  V 

Whoever  produces  citrate  of  lime  or  concentrated  juice  or  trades  in  these 
products,  may  entrust  the  sale  to  the  citrus  chamber,  depositing  the  merchandise 
either  in  the  magazines  of  the  respective  sections,  or  in  another  one  of  the  Citrus 
Fruit  Chamber,  or  in  the  general  magazines  authorized  by  said  chamber  to  take  de- 
livery of  the  merchandise  for  its  account. 

The  sale  is  made  by  the  Chamber  for  account  of  the  depositors,  according  to 
the  order  of  precedence  in  which  the  merchandise  was  delivered. 

At  the  commencement  of  each  trading  year  the  Chamber  establishes  the  mini- 
mum valuation  of  the  merchandise  for  the  entire  season;  this  valuation  marks  the 
minimum  price  of  sale  below  which  the  Chamber  can  not  cede  the  goods. 

The  proceeds  are  liquidated,  in  favor  of  the  several  depositors,  at  semi-annual 
periods  and  in  equal  measure  for  all,  according  to  the  rules  for  computation  which 
shall  be  determined  by  the  rules  of  administration. 

ARTICLE  VI 

To  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  is  transferred,  as  first  capital  and  without  obliga- 
tion of  reimbursement,  the  sum  of  lire  200,000  ($38,610)  to  be  levied  upon  the  sums 
set  aside  in  the  expense  budget  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Com- 
merce, based  upon  the  law  of  July  n,  1904,  No.  376. 

With  said  sum  and  with  the  proceeds  of  the  tax  provided  by  Article  XI,  the 
Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  is  authorized  to  make  the  advances  upon  certificates  of  de- 
posit of  the  citrus-derivatives  in  the  general  magazines,  subject  to  the  dispositions 
of  Article  XII. 

ARTICLE  VII 

The  said  advances  are  made  in  the  proportion  of  two-thirds  of  the  value  of 
the  citrus-derivatives. 

Upon  these  advances  interest  is  due  at  the  rate  of  not  exceeding  four  and  one- 
half  per  cent  from  the  date  the  advance  has  been  made  to  that  of  sale. 

ARTICLE  VIII 

The  Banks  of  issue  are  authorized  to  discount,  at  a  special  rate,  in  the  propor- 
tion established  by  the  preceding  Article,  and  according  to  the  terms  of  Article  XXX 
of  the  unified  text  of  laws  upon  the  before  mentioned  Banks,  modified  by  the  law  of 
December  3ist,  1907,  No.  804,  the  warrants  of  the  citrus-derivatives,  upon  whose 
certificates  of  deposit  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  may  have  made  advances,  subject 
to  the  dispositions  of  Article  XII. 

ARTICLE  IX 

At  the  time  of  effecting  the  advances  upon  the  goods  delivered  to  the  Chamber 
for  sale,  the  Chamber  itself  shall  cause  the  analytical  examination  of  them  to  be 
made.  After  the  advance  has  been  made,  the  goods  are  understood  to  be  definitely 
delivered  for  sale. 

ARTICLE  x 

When  the  goods  of  each  depositor  are  sold  the  Chamber  pays  on  account  the 
portion  of  the  price  which  remained  after  the  advance,  thus  completing  the  payment 
of  the  minimum  price  of  the  annual  valuation. 

The  liquidation  of  the  actual  price  of  sale  shall  be  made  at  the  end  of  each 
half-year,  that  is,  on  June  3Oth  and  December  3 1st,  of  each  year,  upon  the  basis  of 
the  actual  net  profit  of  sales  made  during  the  half-year. 

ARTICLE  XI 

Upon  the  citrate  of  lime  and  upon  concentrated  juice,  for  which  the  certificate 
of  analysis  is  requested  for  transport  upon  the  railroad  or  for  shipment,  in  accord- 
ance with  Article  IV,  the  Chamber  collects  a  Chamber  tax,  the  proceeds  of  which 
are  destined  to  defray  the  expenses  of  administration  and  others  dependent  upon  the 
disposition  of  this  law  and  to  contribute  to  the  formation  of  the  capital  of  the 
Chamber. 


ITALY  333 

For  the  products  not  entrusted  to  the  Chamber  for  sale,  the  chamber  tax  is 
liquidated  and  exacted  upon  the  certificate  of  analysis,  based  upon  the  quantity  for 
which  the  certificate  itself  is  issued  and  in  the  maximum  proportion  of  lire  0.60 
($0.116)  per  quintal  (220  Ibs.)  and  per  each  per  cent  in  grams  of  citric  acid,  add- 
ing together  the  free  citric  acid  and  the  combined  citric  acid. 

The  chamber  tax  upon  the  products  sold  by  the  said  Chamber  for  the  account 
of  the  respective  owners  is  exacted  by  levying  2%  upon  actual  net  proceeds  of  the 
sale.  No  other  sum  may  be  levied  upon  the  sale  price,  the  ware-house  charges  and 
also  the  cost  of  analysis  being  understood  to  be  covered  by  the  said  levy. 

The  Chamber  may  also  sell  on  the  spot.  In  this  case  there  shall  not  be  due  by 
the  purchaser,  even  though  he  may  wish  to  export,  at  the  time  when  the  certificate 
is  issued  to  him,  the  tax  provided  in  this  Article,  which  shall  be  understood  to  be 
included  in  the  price. 

The  certificate  of  analysis  must  in  every  case  be  visaed  in  exemption  of  stamp 
dues  or  every  other  expense. 

ARTICLE  XII 

From  the  proceeds  of  the  before  mentioned  tax  20%  shall  be  put  aside  and 
paid  in  to  the  Bank  of  Sicily  on  current  account  bearing  interest  and  mortgaged  in 
favor  of  the  Banks  which  have  made  the  advances,  in  the  guarantee  of  the  full 
payment  of  their  credits  arising  from  the  operations  made  by  them  under  the  terms 
of  this  law. 

ARTICLE  XIII 

In  case  of  proven  irregularity  in  administration  or  the  inobservances  of  the  dis- 
positions of  this  law  and  of  the  rules  of  administration  as  in  Article  XVI,  or  upon 
the  ascertained  impossibility  to  operate,  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  may  be  dissolved 
by  royal  decree  upon  proposal  of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Com- 
merce. 

In  case  of  dissolution,  the  administration  is  entrusted  to  a  Government  com- 
missioner until  the  installation  of  a  new  council  for  which  a  limit  of  not  exceeding 
three  months  shall  be  fixed. 

ARTICLE  XIV 

Disputes  between  the  chamber  and  whoever  may  have  entrusted  to  it  the  sale  of 
citrus-derivatives  in  accordance  with  Article  V,  shall  be  decided  without  appeal  by 
three  arbitrators.  For  this  purpose  there  shall  be  formed  a  body  of  six  arbitrators, 
of  whom  three  shall  be  experts  in  legal  matters  and  three  experts  in  citrus  fruit 
matters,  nominated  and  if  necessary  surrogated,  two  by  the  Minister  of  Agricul- 
ture, Industry  and  Commerce,  two  by  the  first  President  of  the  Appellate  Court  of 
Palermo  and  two  by  the  chamber. 

In  the  decision  of  each  individual  case  there  may  not  intervene  more  than  two 
experts  of  one  category,  or  more  than  one  of  those  nominated  by  the  chamber. 

The  selection  of  the  arbitrators  shall  be  made  the  first  time  by  lot  and  there- 
after by  turn. 

The  costs  of  arbitration  shall  be  borne  by  the  party  against  whom  judgment 
is  given. 

ARTICLE  xv 

To  the  industrial  establishments  for  the  working  up  of  citrus,  the  candied  citrus 
included,  and  for  the  production  or  transformation  of  the  citrus-derivatives,  which 
shall  be  founded  in  Sicily  or  in  the  Province  of  Reggio,  Calabria,  within  the  period 
of  ten  years  from  the  date  of  this  law,  and  to  those  already  existing,  that  may  be 
enlarged  or  transformed  within  the  said  period  of  time,  for  the  increase  of  the  pro- 
duction or  transformation  of  said  derivatives,  are  respectively  extended  the  privi- 
leges accorded  to  new  or  enlarged  establishments  in  the  Commune  of  Naples,  ac- 
cording to  Articles  VII,  VIII,  XII,  XIII  and  XIV  of  the  law  of  July  8th,  1904, 
No.  351- 

ARTICLE  XVI 

Within  two  months  from  the  day  of  its  installation  the  chamber  must  submit  for 
approval  to  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce,  its  own  rules  of 
administration. 


334  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

The  rules  shall  determine : 
(a)     The  rules  for  internal  administration. 

(&)  The  powers  and  responsibility  of  the  president  and  of  the  several  admin- 
istrators. 

(c)  The  rules  for  the  nomination  and  the  eventual  dismissal  of  the  technical 
manager,  of  the  secretary,  and  of  the  other  employes. 

(d)  The  rules  for  the  computation  of  the  final  liquidation  of  the  price  ob- 
tained from  the  citrus-derivatives  delivered  for  sale  to  the  chamber,  and  whatever 
else  may  be  necessary  for  the  easiest  attainment  of  the  objects  for  which  the  chamber 
is  established. 

These  rules  of  administration  shall  be  approved  by  royal  decree  upon  proposal 
of  the  Minister  of  Agriculture,  Industry  and  Commerce. 

By  the  same  royal  decree  shall  be  established  the  rules  for  the  governmental 
supervision  of  the  administration  and  the  working  of  the  chamber  and  the  penalties 
for  the  violation  of  the  dispositions  of  Article  IV. 

By  royal  decree  shall  be  fixed  the  day,  when  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  is  under- 
stood to  be  established  for  the  effects  of  Article  II. 

Such  day  can  not  be  earlier  than  September  ist,  1908. 

By  the  same  decree  the  relation  between  the  functions  of  the  sections  and  those 
of  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  shall  be  regulated. 

ARTICLE  XVII 

The  chamber  shall  bank  with  the  Bank  of  Sicily  under  the  conditions  and  rules 
which  shall  be  established  by  the  rules  of  administration  as  in  the  preceding  Article. 

ARTICLE  XVIII 

By  royal  decree  there  may  be  established  a  term  of  less  than  two  months  for 
the  notice  required  for  the  working  of  the  citrus  general  store-houses  in  conformity 
to  the  relative  law. 

ARTICLE  XIX 

When  the  capital  of  the  Citrus  Chamber,  as  in  Articles  VI  and  X,  shall  have 
reached  the  sum  of  one  million  (lire)  upon  the  ulterior  net  profits,  the  chamber 
shall  set  aside  annually  20%  for  granting  aid  for  sickness  and  old  age  to  the  citrus 
fruit  operatives.  The  relative  amounts  shall  be  paid  in  semi-annually  to  the  national 
institution  for  aiding  in  sickness  and  old  age  of  workmen  (National  Aid  Institu- 
tion, Cassa  Nazionale  di  Previdenza),  which  shall  administer  the  relative  sums  ac- 
cording to  the  contract  which  shall  be  established  between  said  Cassa  and  the 
Citrus  Fruit  Chamber. 

ARTICLE  xx 

In  case  of  the  suppression  of  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  the  capital  accumulated 
in  the  period  of  its  activity  shall,  by  royal  decree,  proposed  by  the  Minister  of  Agri- 
culture, Industry  and  Commerce,  and  after  the  Council  of  Ministers  has  been  heard, 
be  devoted  in  favor  of  citrus  production,  and  employed  in  the  manner  which  shall  be 
judged  most  useful,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  special  law. 


Commencing  from  the  day  in  which  the  Citrus  Fruit  Chamber  shall  operate 
until  the  3ist  of  August,  1909,  the  citrate  of  lime  and  concentrated  juice  which  will 
be  deposited  with  the  said  chamber  shall  not  enjoy,  as  to  obligations  toward  the 
respective  depositors,  the  precedence  laid  down  in  the  second  section  of  Article  V ; 
and  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  shall  be  distributed  among  all  the  depositors  in  pro- 
portion to  their  respective  deposits. 


FIELD   MUSEUM   OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,    VOL     VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XXI 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderns) 


ORANGE  GROVE  AT  NABEUL,    TUNIS. 


{La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

COLLECTING  ORANGE  FLOWERS  AT  NABEUL,   TUNIS. 


ITALY  335 

The  first  liquidation  shall  be  made  December  3ist,  1908.  The  second  August 
3ist,  1909. 

We  order  that  the  present,  under  the  seal  of  State,  be  inserted  in  the  official 
list  of  the  laws  and  decrees  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  commanding  all  whom  it  may 
concern  to  observe  the  same  and  cause  it  to  be  observed  as  a  law  of  the  State. 

Dated  at  Rome,  the  5th  day  of  July,  1908. 

(Signed)  VICTOR  EMMANUEL. 
F.  Cocco-Ortu, 
Carcano, 
Lacava. 

Visaed,  The  Guardian  of  the  Seal,  Orlando. 

THE  SICILIAN   CITRATE  AND  SULPHUR  INDUSTRIES   COMPARED 

Until  recent  years  Sicily  was  the  most  important  factor  in  the  world's 
supply  of  sulphur  as  well  as  lemon  products.  The  Sicilian  sulphur  in- 
dustry has  now  been  displaced  by  the  American  industry  which  has  de- 
veloped large  production  owing  to  the  easy  extraction  of  sulphur  from 
Louisiana  and  Texas  mines.  The  history  of  the  sulphur  industry  is  of 
interest  in  connection  with  the  lemon  products  industry  because  of  the 
parallel  which  may  be  drawn  between  the  histories  of  both.  Both  were 
Sicilian  monopolies,  both  were  formerly  controlled  by  the  Sicilian  gov- 
ernment, and  both  show  clearly  the  false  economic  basis  involved. 

The  production  of  sulphur  in  Sicily  rose  from  1860  to  1905.  Since 
1919  production  has  decreased  while  the  American  output  has  increased. 

The  average  price  of  sulphur  from  1860  to  1876  was  such  as  to  en- 
courage exploration  and  production.  As  a  consequence  other  fields  of 
sulphur  were  opened  and  the  price  gradually  diminished.  The  Sicilian 
government  formed  a  compulsory  syndicate  in  1906  in  which  all  Italian 
producers  were  required  to  combine  for  twelve  years.  The  object  of 
this  syndicate  was  to  fix  the  price  of  sulphur  periodically  and  to  limit 
production.  The  company  made  a  private  agreement  with  a  United 
States  company  as  to  the  division  of  foreign  fields  for  the  marketing  of 
sulphur.  During  the  world-war  sulphur  was  in  great  demand  for  ammu- 
nition, and  owing  to  lack  of  tonnage  American  sulphur  shipments  to 
Europe  were  curtailed.  The  Italian  government  commandeered  the  sul- 
phur trade  and  the  American  agreement  terminated.  Now  that  freights 
are  again  normal  American  sulphur  is  everywhere  underbidding  the 
Sicilian. 

At  the  time  that  the  Italian  government  passed  the  law  for  the  con- 
trol of  the  citrate  of  lime  trade  in  1908,  Sicily  was  almost  the  sole  source 
of  the  world-supply  of  citric  acid.  The  prices  established  by  the  syndi- 
cate were  such  as  to  arouse  and  stimulate  the  manufacture  of  citric  acid 
elsewhere,  notably  in  the  United  States  and  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  As 


336 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


a  consequence  the  syndicate  began  to  sell  citric  acid  for  less  than  the 
fixed  price  to  producers.  To  1925,  the  loss  to  the  government  is  given  as 
approximately  80,000,000  lire.  The  Italian  government  then  had  on  hand 
about  18,000  tons  which  is  as  much  as  the  world  can  consume  in  three 
years. 

The  government  has  now  discontinued  the  fixed  price  to  the  pro- 
ducers and  is  to  market  the  accumulated  material  over  a  period  of  years. 
This  marketing,  gradual  though  it  be,  will  each  year  represent  a  carry- 
over, and  this  cannot  fail  to  depress  the  domestic  price.  The  result  will 
be  that  the  industry  which  was  artificially  and  unwisely  stimulated  with 
public  money  will  face  a  period  of  distress  that  would  not  have  taken 
place  if  the  business  had  remained  in  private  hands. 

CITRUS  FRUIT  EXPORT  DATA1 

The  Italian  export  trade  in  citrus  fruit  has  suffered  several  reverses 
in  recent  years.  From  an  average  annual  production  of  882,000  short 
tons  during  1909-13,  production  has  dropped  to  634,000  short  tons  dur- 

TABLE  LXV* 

ACREAGEf  OF  ClTRUS  FRUITS,  1913,  1921,   AND   1922 


1913 

1921 

1922 

Uncultivated  

153,696 

149,743 

149,743 

Cultivated  

114,160 

118,114 

117,867 

Total  

267,856 

267,857 

267,610 

*Notizit  Periodiche  de  Statislica  Agraria,  June,  1923,  p.  219;  April,  1922,  p.  156;  April,  1914,  p.  165. 
fin  acres. 

ing  1921-23.  Lemons  dropped  from  441,000  short  tons  annually  to 
331,000  and  oranges  and  mandarins  from  358,000  to  303,000  metric  tons. 
Exports  of  all  fresh  citrus  fruits  before  the  war  averaged  441,000  short 
tons,  but  fell  to  254,000  short  tons  for  1921-23. 

In  a  report  dated  April  i,  1924,  the  American  Consul  at  Rome  brings 
out  the  fact  that  while  greater  development  of  the  citrus  industry  in 
America  has  cut  Italian  business  severely,  the  expansion  of  that  industry 
in  South  Africa  and  Australia  offers  more  severe  competition.  While 
the  American  duty  of  two  cents  per  pound  on  imported  lemons  is  a  seri- 
ous consideration,  the  ability  of  the  countries  in  the  Southern  Hemisphere 

Because  the  lemon  products  industries  are  related  to  the  amount  and  condition 
of  the  lemons  grown  the  following  information  is  included. 


ITALY 


337 


to  put  fruit  on  the  market  during  the  European  summer  is  an  even  worse 
blow  to  Italian  growers.    With  regard  to  the  American  trade  the  annual 

TABLE  LXVI* 

PRODUCTIONf   OF  ClTRUS  FRUITS,    1913,    1921,    1922 


1913 

1921 

1922 

Total  citrus  fruits  

1,932,332 

1.^53.404 

I.AQ7    1O6 

For  provinces  in  which  the  great- 
est production  occurs: 
Lemons  

04.8.860 

677.604. 

7  ft  A   see 

Oranges  

QO6.S^2 

615  083 

6^0  loft 

Mandarins  

69,445 

48,722 

55,776 

*Notizie  Periodiche  di  Statistica  Agraria,  June  1923,  p.  219;  April,  1922,  p.  156;  April  ,1914,  p.  165 
tin  1.000  Ibs. 

TABLE  LXVII* 

LEMONS:  EXPORTS  FROM  ITALY  BY  COUNTRIES,  CALENDAR  YEARS,  1898-1923 
(1,000  Boxes,  i  box  =84  Ibs.) 


Year  Ending 
December  31 

United 
States 

United 
Kingdom 

Austria 
Hungary 

Russia 

Germany 

Turkey 
in 
Europe 

Nether- 
lands 

Aus- 
tralia 

Canada 

1808.  . 

1,  602 

908 

557 

246 

182 

89 

79 

36 

•14. 

1800  .  . 

1,609 

881 

951 

3OO 

240 

139 

87 

32 

7 

IOOO.  . 

1,075 

814 

821 

314 

218 

1  08 

112 

50 

41 

IOOI  .  . 

1,284 

,099 

806 

478 

236 

54 

129 

50 

<* 

1902  

2,057 

,407 

,051 

358 

469 

35 

140 

41 

73 

1  903  

1,705 

,221 

,247 

468 

392 

47 

99 

45 

28 

IQO4..  . 

2,280 

,I3O 

,352 

375 

436 

73 

96 

29 

38 

IOOS  .  . 

1,731 

,036 

,141 

382 

56i 

41 

60 

39 

SO 

1  906  

2,431 

,243 

,126 

461 

645 

74 

5O 

48 

7 

1  907  

2,521 

,180 

,169 

411 

688 

100 

62 

23 

10 

1008.. 

2,IOI 

,165 

,254 

687 

616 

77 

84 

20 

23 

IQOQ.  . 

1,974 

,314 

,329 

545 

762 

172 

73 

51 

43 

IQIO.  . 

2,139 

,3i8 

,250 

510 

714 

237 

75 

36 

57 

IQII  .  . 

1,933 

,380 

,232 

472 

829 

230 

82 

29 

65 

IQI2  .  . 

1,992 

,217 

,101 

55i 

1,083 

18 

45 

36 

53 

I9IV  . 

2,916 

,143 

,271 

674 

1,070 

162 

68 

54 

72 

IQI4.  . 

3,051 

,396 

1,193 

568 

996 

262 

72 

48 

26 

IQI5.  . 

1,856 

,137 

441 

309 

355 

3 

332 

27 

2 

1916 

i  7^o 

,o6s 

30 

16 

13 

I« 

I  228 

676 

i 

•i 

24. 

1918 

QA.2 

018 

7 

IQI9.  . 

I,O23 

713 

93 

42 

55 

9i 

40 

3 

9 

IQ2O.  . 

1,465 

522 

491 

i 

547 

147 

19 

4 

3 

1921 

1923  

i,487§ 

"••Compiled  from  Movimento  Commerciale  Del  Regno  D' Italia. 
tLess  than  500  boxes. 

JReported  in  value  only  in  reports  of  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 
§Imports  into  the  United  States  as  taken  from  reports  of  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Com- 
merce. 


338 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 
TABLE  LXVII— Continued 


Year  Ending 
December  31 

Argen- 
tina 

Rou- 
mania 

France 

Bel- 
gium 

Switzer- 
land 

Den- 
mark 

Norway 
and 
Sweden 

Egypt 

Other 
Coun- 
tries 

Total 

1898    

33 

26 

25 

19 

I< 

7 

5 

I 

1  1 

T..87S 

1800 

16 

24. 

46 

18 

10 

6 

II 

c 

7 

4.  ^OQ 

1900   

25 

13 

43 

30" 

10 

i 

II 

2 

12 

?  700 

igOl     

27 

24 

59 

32 

27 

7 

6 

2 

17 

4?QO 

IQO2     

i< 

IO 

51 

74 

10 

10 

9 

IO 

2S 

S.8^4. 

IQOT.     . 

16 

IS 

39 

5° 

28 

IO 

I 

4 

28 

S.472 

I  OCX!     . 

T51 

28 

87 

6s 

7Q 

75 

17 

8 

18 

6  121 

IQOS     . 

2«, 

18 

119 

S6 

S6 

17 

17 

17 

27 

C.-JQ2 

1006.  . 

19 

54 

159 

67 

67 

22 

29 

4O 

12 

6,554 

IQO7  .  . 

36 

89 

94 

68 

46 

72 

17 

58 

17 

6,66  1 

1908  

31 

13 

64 

72 

83 

19 

24 

81 

18 

6,  4^2 

IQOQ.  . 

36 

•»4 

87 

93 

6? 

51 

32 

4S 

16 

6,72O 

IQIO  .  * 

32 

33 

67 

62 

74. 

74 

24 

59 

18 

6,779 

IOII  .  . 

60 

19 

113 

115 

88 

53 

70 

24 

26 

6,789 

IOI2  .  . 

29 

83 

77 

126 

87 

56 

73 

4O 

74 

6,737 

JOI7  .  . 

38 

94 

56 

105 

78 

71 

64 

2O 

40 

8,005 

IQI4-  .  . 

2O 

55 

55 

1  07 

77 

4-1 

42 

23 

60 

8.004 

IQIS  .  . 

4O 

52 

107 

<M8 

108 

48 

24 

01 

5,380 

IQl6  .  . 

36 

97 

2.  103 

164 

S6 

76 

57 

5,506 

IOI7  .  . 

26 

236 

1.647 

2 

2*1 

74 

7,044 

IQl8.  . 

f 

433 

4O 

8 

46 

2,^04 

1919  

22 

53 

285 

32 

948 

39 

18 

5 

170 

3,641 

1920  

43 

137 

2IO 

65 

l6d 

IO 

19 

20 

172 

4,039 

IQ2I  .  . 

4,155 

IO22     . 

3,567 

IQ23     . 

7,600 

tLess  than  500  boxes. 

average  for  1909-13  of  103,000  short  tons  of  lemons  fell  away  during 
1922-23  to  only  43,000  short  tons,  with  all  indications  pointing  to  further 
shrinkages.  The  loss  of  former  markets  in  Central  and  Western  Europe 
through  economic  collapse  of  those  markets  is  felt  very  severely.  Nor- 
mally 55  per  cent  of  Italy's  acid  fruit  exports  went  to  Central  Europe  and 
Russia.  France  and  Switzerland  have  increased  their  takings,  but  the 
aggregate  is  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  former  Europe  trade.  These 
factors,  coupled  with  indifferent  and  backward  methods  of  cultivation 
and  marketing  at  home,  indicate  a  very  discouraging  outlook  for  Italian 
citrus  fruit. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  production  of  lemons,  oranges,  and  man- 
darines in  the  principal  provinces  of  Italy  is  practically  the  total  produc- 
tion of  citrus  fruits.  Some  fruit  is  produced  in  provinces  other  than 
those  included  in  the  total  for  the  various  classes  of  citrus  fruits,  but  this 
production  is  relatively  unimportant. 

Lemon  imports  into  the  United  States  show  considerable  quantities 
coming  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany.  These  are  evidently 
re-exports  of  Italian  or  Spanish  lemons. 


REFERENCES  339 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XV 
ANONYMOUS. 

"Southern  Italy  Lemon  Industry,"  Los  Angeles  Times  (September  3, 

1912). 

(Lemon  Exportation  from  Italy,  1919  and  1920),  Pure  Products,  XVI, 
No.  7  (July,  1920),  pp.  357-58. 

BROWN,  W.  DUVAL. 

"Conditions  of  the  Lemon  Industry  in  Western  Sicily,"  Commerce  Re- 
ports, September  18,  1919,  p.  1455. 

CHENEY,  A.  S. 

Consular  Report  on  the  Lemon  Industry  in  Sicily.    Los  Angeles :  Kings- 
ley,  Moles,  &  Collins  Co. 

EDITORIAL. 

Oil,  Paint  and  Drug  Reporter,  5oth  Anniversary  Number,  p.  91. 

EDITORIAL. 

Saturday  Evening  Post,  December  27,  1924,  p.  20. 

POWELL,  G.  H.,  and  CHACE,  E.  M. 

"Italian  Lemons  and  Their  By-Products,"  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  160  (October,  1909). 

POWELL,  G.  H.,  and  WALLSCHLAEGER,  F.  O. 

"The  Italian  Lemon  Industry,"  Citrus  Protective  League  of  California 
Bulletin  No.  10  (January,  1913).    Los  Angeles. 

U.  S.  TARIFF  COMMISSION. 

Bulletin  No.  13  Tariff  Information  Series.    Washington,  D.  C,  1920. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  INDUSTRY  IN  ASIA  AND  ASIA  MINOR 

JAPAN 

The  principal  fruit  grown  in  Japan  is  the  orange.  During  the  five- 
year  period,  1909-13,  the  total  number  of  orange  trees  in  Japan  averaged 
20,310,000  annually,  and  produced  501,000,000  Ib.  In  the  same  period 
mandarins  were  exported  to  the  annual  extent  of  24,729,000  Ib.  valued 
at  $460,000.  A  large  part  of  these  were  sent  to  Asiatic  Russia.  Candied 
kumquats  are  made  here  as  well  as  in  China.1 

The  districts  which  produce  practically  all  of  the  citrus  fruit  in  this 
country  are :  Shiznoka-Ken,  Hiroshima-Ken,  Wakeyama-Ken,  and  Yoku- 
shima-Ken.  All  are  situated  in  the  southern  and  eastern  parts,  as  farther 
north  the  climate  is  very  cold  and  severe  in  the  winter. 

Statistics  for  Japan  are  given  in  Tables  LXVIII  and  LXIX.2 

TABLE  LXVIII 
STATISTICS  FOR  JAPAN 


Varieties 

Trees 

Yield  Ob.) 

1,840,240 

20,  70  1.  66s 

Mandarines  and  tangerines  

4..IO2.T*8 

O0.4.O7.4.OO 

All  other  citrus*.  . 

2.7*01.153 

43.O5I.245 

including  lemons  and  bitter  orange,  used  as  grapefruit. 


TABLE  LXIX 

Value  Yens*                                                  Boxes  (California  Standard)! 
748,681    280,968 

1.473753  1,343.344 

770,886  58i,773 

•American  equivalent  $0.50. 
t74  Ibs. 

'Seep.  1 10. 

*For  additional  statistics,  see  p.  355. 

340 


SYRIA 


34i 


CHINA 

In  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1914,  China  exported  to  the  United 
States  orange  extract  and  glaced  kumquats  and  orange  peel.  Hongkong 
was  the  chief  export  point.  Oranges,  grapefruit,  and  limes  are  produced 
in  large  quantities.1 

SYRIA 

Ruppin  gives  some  information  concerning  the  importance  of  the 
exports  of  oranges,  lemons,  etc.,  from  Syria. 

According  to  the  Turkish  official  statistics,  the  exports  to  foreign 
countries  are  given  in  Table  LXX. 

TABLE  LXX 


Kilos 

Value  in 
Piasters 

Via  ports  controlled  by  the  Alexandrette  customs 
office  

2.  55I.62S 

2.227.516 

Via  Beyroot  

83.4.6O 

03.571 

Via  other  Syrian  ports  

28.O55,3IO 

23.280.704. 

Total.  .  , 

30.600.30.5 

2.S.601.  701 

As  per  the  English  Consular  Reports,  the  exports  to  foreign  coun- 
tries and  to  Turkey  amounted  to  the  figures  given  in  Table  LXXI. 

TABLE  LXXI 


1909 

1910 

1911 

1912 

1913 

Number  of  Cases 

From  Jaffa  

744,463 
134,000 
188,000 
3,200 

853,767 
2l8,OOO 
I25,OOO 
I,2OO 

869,850 
135,000 
70,000 
4,800 

1,418,000 
140,000 
79,600 
i,  860 

1,608,570 

From  Tripoli  .  .  . 
From  Saida  .... 
From  Beyroot  .  . 

From  Jaffa  

Value  in  Francs 

4,650,000 
6OO,OOO 
8oo,OOO 
IO.OOO 

5,875,000 
9OO,OOO 
5OO,OOO 

5,000 

5,440,000 
600,000 
300,000 
15,000 

7,100,000 
600,000 
300,000 
6,000 

7,450,000 

From  Tripoli  .  .  . 
From  Saida  .... 
From  Beyroot  .  . 

The  Jaffa  oranges,  which  can  stand  a  longer  journey,  are  mostly 
sent  to  Liverpool,  in  cases  containing  144  and  weighing  about  35  kilos. 
During  the  shipping  season  (November  to  March)  English  ships  go  to 
Jaffa  specially  for  the  transport  of  oranges.  It  requires  from  seventeen 
to  twenty  days  to  land  their  cargo  in  Liverpool.  The  freight  from  Jaffa 

JFor  additional  statistics,  see  p.  355. 


342  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

to  Liverpool  generally  reaches  1.50  fr.  per  case.  The  other  outlays  of 
the  producers,  i.e.,  for  picking  and  packing  the  fruit,  etc.,  amount  to  2 
or  2^  f  r.  per  case.  The  average  price  brought  by  the  oranges  in  Liver- 
pool being  7  to  8  f  r.  per  box,  there  is  a  net  profit  of  3  to  4  f  r.  for  the  pro- 
ducer. Sometimes,  higher  prices  are  obtained,  but  it  may  likewise  hap- 
pen that,  the  Liverpool  market  being  overstocked,  the  oranges  have  to  be 
sold  at  considerable  lower  rates,  or  that  they  arrive  in  bad  condition  and 
not  even  cover  the  outlays.  This  risk  is  the  most  disagreeable  feature  of 
the  otherwise  remunerative  orange  growing.  In  addition  to  Liverpool, 
Jaffa  oranges  are  exported  to  Egypt  (in  larger  cases,  inferior  packing, 
and  second-class  fruit),  Smyrna,  Constantinople,  and  Odessa.  Attempts 
have  even  been  made  to  start  an  export  to  Australia  and  the  United 
States. 

The  exports  from  Jaffa  during  the  season  1913-14  were  as  follows: 

Destination  Cases 

Liverpool    887,481 

Manchester    400 

London    4,626 

Other  English  ports 3»36i 

Marseilles 3,412 

Hamburg 9,487 

Trieste    58,492 

Odessa 148,409 

Egypt,  the  Red  Sea,  and  Australia 149,846 

Turkish  ports    268,492 

Roumania  and  Bulgaria 19,405 


Total   i,553.86i 

In  1925,  the  Palestine  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Forests  esti- 
mated the  orange  acreage  as  8,039  of  which  7,105  lie  in  the  Southern 
Circle,  including  the  Jaffa  and  Gaza  orange  districts  and  934  acres  in  the 
Northern  Circle,  including  the  Tulkarem  and  Haifa  orange  districts. 
The  1925  crop  was  estimated  at  1,300,000  cases.1 

The  largest  part  of  the  Saida  oranges  remains  in  the  country,  for 
they  cannot  stand  a  long  journey,  owing  to  their  being  thin-skinned.  In 
consequence,  only  small  quantities  go  to  Constantinople,  Odessa,  Rou- 
mania, and  Liverpool,  but  fairly  large  quantities  of  lemons  are  exported. 
Tripoli  exports  oranges  and  lemons,  about  one-half  to  Odessa,  a  quarter 
to  Constantinople,  and  the  remaining  quarter  to  Salonica,  Alexandria, 
and  Liverpool.  The  price  in  Tripoli  was  of  late  years  about  8  to  10  fr. 
per  case  of  300  lemons  and  4  to  5  f  r.  per  box  of  250  oranges. 

foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  XI,  No.  20,  1925. 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY. 


BOTANY,    VOL.   VI,    PART  II,    PLATE  XXII. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

MANUFACTURING  PLANT  AT  NABEUL,   TUNIS. 


(La  Parfumerie  Moderne) 

AN  ARABIC  STILL. 


SYRIA  343 

The  Jaffa  oranges  are  partly  exported  by  dealers,  who  buy  them  be- 
fore they  are  ripe,  either  at  a  lump  sum  for  the  whole  crop  of  a  planta- 
tion, or  at  a  fixed  price  per  case.  As  the  oranges  ripen  in  November, 
but  may  remain  on  the  trees  up  to  March  or  April  without  damage,  the 
dealer  has  plenty  of  time  for  picking  them.  The  Jewish  orange  growers 

TABLE  LXXII 

ORANGES:  PRODUCTION,  PALESTINE,  1920-21  TO  1926-27* 

SEASON  QUANTITY 

(October — May)  (Cases) 

1920-21 830,959 

1921-22 1,234,251 

1922-23 1,365,543 

1923-24 1,589,331 

1924-25 2,146,457 

1925-26 1,511,000 

1926-27  (estimate) 2,500,000 

*Consul  O.  S.  Heizer  at  Jerusalem,  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  February  at,  19*7. 

in  the  neighborhood  of  Jaffa  have  formed  two  unions  for  the  sale  of  their 
produce,  and  the  German  ones  have  followed  their  example ;  but  so  far 
it  has  been  tried  in  vain  to  bring  the  Arabian  owners  of  orange  trees  to 
act  in  a  similar  way. 

The  union  decides  when  and  where  the  oranges  of  its  members  are 
to  be  sent.  Every  member  must  put  a  certain  mark  on  his  cases,  so  that 
it  is  possible  to  give  each  a  special  account  of  sales,  thus  rewarding  them 
for  the  good  condition  of  the  produce  or  making  them  responsible  for 
bad  quality. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XVI 

ANONYMOUS. 

(Lemon  By-Product  Situation  in  New  South  Wales),  California  Citro- 
graph,  VI,  No.  6  (April,  1921),  200. 

ARUNDEL,  S.  J. 

"Foreign  Citrus  Markets  on  Pacific,"  California  Citrograph,  VI,  No.  5 
(1920),  34. 

COIT,  J.  E. 

Citrus  Fruits,  p.  341.    Macmillan  Co.,  1915. 

RUPPIN. 

Beihefte  zum  Tropenpflanzer,  XVI  (1916),  421.    (In  Report  of  Schim- 
mel  &  Co.,  April-October,  1917),  pp.  106-8. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  INDUSTRY  IN  AFRICA  AND  OCEANIA 

AFRICA 

Perhaps  small  amounts  of  citrus  by-products  are  made  in  Africa.  No 
record  of  them  has  been  obtained.  Rhodesia  had  over  150,000  trees 
planted  with  nearly  70,000  in  bearing  in  1919.  Five  thousand  boxes  of 
citrus  fruit  were  exported  to  Europe  and  considerable  quantities  were 
supplied  to  local  and  Union  markets.  It  was  estimated  that  the  1920 
crop  was  about  10,000  boxes. 

ALGERIA 

Of  the  principal  fruits  exported  from  Algeria  during  the  five  years 
1909-13,  lemons  and  oranges  had  an  annual  value  of  $172,000.  and  man- 
darins $449,000. 

TABLE  LXXIII 

CITRUS  FRUIT:  AREA  AND  PRODUCTION  OF  ORANGES,  MANDARINS,  LEMONS, 
CITRONS,  ETC.,  IN  ALGERIA,  1921-22  AND  1922-23* 


SEASON  AND 
DISTRICT 

ORANGES 

MANDARINS 

LEMONS,  CITRONS,  ETC. 

Area 
(Acres) 

Production 
(Pounds) 

Area 
(Acres) 

•  Production 
(Pounds) 

Area 
(Acres) 

Production 
(Pounds) 

1921-22 
Alger  

5,48l 
2,090 

1,737 

39,412,296 
15,146,704 
9,Il6,O2I 

5,063 
1,171 
902 

53,162,606 
9,084,275 
8,973,l63 

1,636 

353 
902 

8,786,433 
2,445,342 
8,127,258 

Oran  

Constantine.  .  .  . 
Total  

9,308 

63,675,021 

7,136 

71,220,044 

2,891 

19,359,033 

1922-23 

Alger.  . 

5,636 
2,165 
2,454 

40,649,738 
16,437,498 
18,046,856 

5,199 
1,174 
i,443 

57,495,307 
9,566,641 
14,318,436 

1,614 
257 
1,045 

7,535,326 
2,435  201 
10,689,885 

Oran  

Constantine  .... 
Total  

10,255 

75,134,092 

7,816 

81,380,384 

2,916 

20,660,412 

*Compiled  from  Statislique  Generate  de  I'Alg&rie,  1922-23;     Foreign  Crops  and   Markets,  February 

21,   1927. 

BRITISH    SOUTH    AFRICA 

Within  8  or  10  years  South  Africa  should  have  7  or  8  million  boxes 
of  oranges  available  for  export  annually.  While  total  exports  of  all  citrus 
fruits  amounted  to  only  530,000  boxes  during  the  1924  season,  the  rapid 
extension  of  acreage  that  has  been  taking  place,  particularly  during  1924, 
will  bring  a  great  increase  in  exports  as  the  new  plantings  come  into 


344 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


345 


bearing.  No  reliable  figures  are  available  as  to  the  present  acreage  of 
citrus  fruits  in  South  Africa,  as  figures  for  only  a  year  ago  are  hopelessly 
out  of  date. 

New  developments  are  being  undertaken  chiefly  as  large  scale  projects 
with  estates  varying  from  300  to  5,000  acres,  the  average  being  around 
2,000.  None  of  the  large  estates  are  yet  in  full  bearing.  One  large  estate 
in  Northern  Transvaal  had  3,500  acres  in  oranges  early  in  January  with 
operations  being  carried  on  that  would  increase  the  area  to  5,000  by 
June.  In  7  to  8  years,  the  output  from  this  one  place  alone  should  be 
over  a  million  cases.  This  estate  has  gravity  water  sufficient  to  supply 
5,500  acres.  Another  estate  visited  had  2,000  acres  with  another  1,000 
to  be  planted. 

TABLE  LXIV 

CITRUS  FRUIT:  SHIPMENTS  FROM  UNION  OF  SOUTH  AFRICA,  1921-25* 

(Boxes) 


YEAR 

LEMONS 

ORANGES 

TANGERINES 

GRAPEFRUIT 

IQ2I.  . 

217,746 

22,236 

2,820 

1022.  .  , 

74 

282,585 

38,102 

9,639 

102  "*.  . 

4.  -i 

356,087 

4.1,  ICR 

1^,474 

1  024.  . 

66 

44<;,QI7 

57,518 

19,128 

1925  

4 

676,368 

67,500 

25,287 

^Unofficial  trade  source;  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  February  ai,  1927. 

The  scheme  usually  followed  is  to  sell  five  acre  plots  or  shares  in  a 
company,  the  money  realized  being  used  for  further  development.  The 
company  cares  for  the  plots  for  five  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
buyer  may  either  take  over  his  plot  or  let  the  company  run  it,  the  latter 
being  the  usual  case.  Great  numbers  of  plot  holders  are  resident  in 
England  and  India.  The  tracts  of  land  are  planted  solidly — the  five-acre 
demarcation  being  found  only  on  the  map — but  with  each  plot  containing 
250  navels  and  250  valencias.  While  this  method  is  not  a  good  way  to 
set  out  a  large  place,  as  far  as  picking  operators  are  concerned,  it  is  of 
advantage,  of  course,  to  the  settler  who  wishes  to  take  over  his  plot.1 

In  1914,  $87,000  worth  of  oranges  were  exported. 

MOROCCO 

In  Morocco  orange  blossoms  are  distilled  by  the  natives  in  Marakesh 
and  Fez.2  About  80  per  cent  of  the  oranges  cultivated  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  Fez  belong  to  the  species  of  Citrus  bigarada.  In  the  district  of 
Marakesh  harvesting  of  these  blossoms  terminates  in  April  while  around 

foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  X,  No.  n,  1925. 
"Report  of  Schimmel  &  Co.  (April-October,  1916),  p.  39. 


346 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Rabat  it  only  reaches  its  height  in  that  month  and  in  Mekines  it  ends  even 
later.  In  Fez  the  gathering  of  the  blossoms  lasts  about  twenty  days. 
Marakesh  and  Fez  are  without  doubt  the  most  important  centers  of  dis- 
tillation. The  natives  possess  only  very  primitive  apparatus,  and  they 
produce  the  orange  flower  water  but  not  the  oil. 

TUNIS 

Lemons,  mandarins,  and  oranges  are  cultivated  here. 

TABLE  LXXV 

CITRUS  FRUIT:  NUMBER  OF  TREES  AND  PRODUCTION,  ORANGES  AND  CITRON, 

TUNIS,  1916-22* 


YEAR 

ORANGES 

LEMONS,  CITRONS,  ETC. 

Trees 
(Number) 

Production 
(Pounds) 

Trees 
(Number) 

Production 
(Pounds) 

IQl6.  .  . 

6l,000 
6l,OOO 
6l,OOO 
63,000 
64,500 
66,000 
66,900 

2,645,520 
3,086,440 
2,976,210 
3,196,670 
3,086,440 
3,350,992 
3,042,348 

50,000 
50,000 
50,000 
51,000 
51,500 
52,000 
52,000 

2,645,520 
2,425,060 
2,645,520 
2,755,750 
2,425,060 
2,865,980 
2,425,060 

IQI7.  .  , 

1918  

1919  •  

1920  

1921  

1922  

*Compiled  from  Statistique  Generate  de  la  Tunisie,  1922;  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  February 
21,  1927. 

OCEANIA 

AUSTRALIA 

The  production  in  the  season  1912-13,  of  oranges  was  1,402,000 
bushels,  valued  at  $1,953,000  and  375,000  bushels  of  lemons,  valued  at 
$430,000.  Of  these  $129,000  worth  was  exported.  Citrus  fruits,  how- 

TABLE  LXXVI 

CITRUS  FRUIT:  PRODUCTION  OF  LEMONS  AND  ORANGES,  AUSTRALIA  AND 

NEW  ZEALAND,  1919-20  TO  1925-26* 

(Bushels) 


YEAR 

AUSTRALIA 

NEW  ZEALAND 

Lemons 

Oranges 

Lemons 

Oranges 

1919—20  

436,920 
464,572 
516,164 

463,951 
452,679 

2,263,169 
2,582,867 
2,863,614 

2,898,759 
2,820,858 

4,884 
7,500 
10,965 
10,998 

13,844 
20,785 
22,369 

2,534 
2,339 
3,439 
3,738 
2,623 
3,540 
5,649 

1920-21  

1921-22  

1922-23  

1923-24  

1924-25  

1925-26  

*Australia:  Production   Bulletin,    1919-20  to    1923-24.     New   Zealand:  Agricultural  and  Pastorial 
Production,  1920-21  to  1925-26.   Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  February  21,  1927. 


AUSTRALIA  347 

ever,  were  imported  from  Italy  with  an  annual  value  of  $141,000  during 
1909-13.  Citrus  fruit  production  is  rapidly  increasing  in  Australia  but 
is  still  on  too  small  a  scale  to  permit  extensive  by-product  manufacture. 
The  production  is  insufficient  to  meet  the  local  demand  and  it  is  estimated 
that  five  years  will  be  required  until  production  is  sufficient  for  export. 
The  citrus  territory  is  confined  principally  to  the  provinces  of  New 
South  Wales  and  Victoria.  Oranges  and  lemons  have  been  grown  there 
for  sixty  years.  The  varieties  are :  Thompson's  improved  navels,  white 
selletas,  Washington  navels,  seedlings,  Valencias,  and  mandarins. 

NEW  ZEALAND 

Citrus  production  is  insufficient  to  meet  local  demand.    Very  few 
oranges  are  grown  and  but  300  acres  of  lemons,  the  latter  near  Auckland. 

REFERENCES  FOR  CHAPTER  XVII 

ANONYMOUS. 

(Rhodesia — Citrus  Crop),  Agricultural  News,  Barbadoes,  XIX  (Octo- 
ber 2,  1920),  316. 
The  Field  (September  4,  1920). 
California  Citrograph,  VI  (April,  1921),  200. 

,  S.  J. 

"Foreign  Citrus  Markets  on  the  Pacific,"  California  Citrograph,  VI 
(1920),  5,  34- 


APPENDIX 

CITRUS  FRUIT:  PRODUCTION  OF  ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  BY  PRINCIPAL  DISTRICTS, 

SPAIN,  1923-24  AND  1925-26* 

(1,000  pounds) 


LEM 

ONS 

ORAI 

TOES 

1923-34 

I9iS-a6 

1923-24 

1935-36 

Levant  f  

31,668 

52,O89 

1,519,091 

2,268,750 

Eastern  Andalusia  

22,623 

45,292 

98,951 

128.^97 

Western  Andalusia  

1,092 

1,661 

132,953 

1  44.666 

Catalonia  and  Balearic  Isles  

4-.OSI 

2.774. 

41,773 

26,730 

Estrernadura  

1.  151 

1.^57 

6,328 

8,864 

Galicia  

409 

5OO 

758 

812 

Cantabrica  

205 

194 

2  2O 

22O 

Canary  Islands  

8x6 

764 

1,698 

4,4O7 

Total  

62,039 

104,631 

1,801,844 

2,582,920 

*Armario,    Estadistico  de  Espana,    1923-34;    Commercial    Attacht    quoting    Consejo  Agronomico, 
1935-36;  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  February  21.  1927. 
tincludes  Valencia  and  Murcia. 


CITRUS  FRUIT:  PRODUCTION  IN  FRANCE,  1914-24* 
(1,000  pounds) 


YEAR 

LIMES 
(Citrons) 

LEMONS 
(Cedrats) 

MANDARINS 

ORANGES 

1914.. 

•*9O 

21 

354 

1,014 

1915  

•144. 

I.  ^21 

381 

917 

1916  

621 

1.54"* 

"SQ5 

1.  21^ 

1917.  .  . 

22^ 

1,764 

•240 

571 

1918... 

24.O 

18* 

562 

1.499 

JQIQ.  .  , 

260 

-107 

SOS 

1.294 

IO2O.  .  . 

4.67 

I.OI4 

728 

1.246 

102  1.  . 

I.IQ7 

4.4.OQ 

I.44O 

2.7QT 

IQ22.  .  , 

1.442 

5.  5,1  1 

1,616 

2.6l9 

1923  

I.O4I 

A.4.OQ 

1,380 

2,388 

1924  

937 

2,646 

392 

2,634 

•Compiled  from  Statisliyue  Agricole  Annuelle,  France,  1914-24;  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets,  Feb- 
ruary 2i,  1927. 


348 


APPENDIX 


349 


CITRUS  OILS,  ACID,  AND  CITRATE  OF  LIME  EXPORTED  FROM  ITALY 
(Average,  in  pounds) 


Product 

1909-13* 

1923t 

I9*4t 

i9«5t 

Citrus  oils  

1,4.06.076 

2.  OT.il.  80O 

2.^OI.o88 

2.  •*  8O.4.61 

Citric  acid  

103,616 

2.O12.77O 

4..2S6.2OI 

6.  121.  7V* 

Citrate  of  lime..  . 

12,477,375 

6,811,112 

8,322,806 

10,313,119 

*Data  compiled  from  Movimenlo  Commerciale  del  Regno  d' Italia,  in  Foreign  Crops  and  Markets, 
Vol.  XIV,  No.  8,  February  21,  1927. 

fData  compiled  from  Statistica  del  Commercio  Speciale  di  Importagione  e  di  Esportagione,  in  Foreign 
Crops  and  Markets,  Vol.  XIV,  No.  8,  February  at,  19*7. 


IMPORTS  OF  LEMON  OIL  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1924 


.Year 
Ending  June  30 

Quantity  Ob.) 

Value 

1898  

160,264 

$117,021.00 

1899.  . 

237,302 

185,728.00 

IOOO.  . 

261,978 

2ll,8oo.OO 

IQOI  .  . 

268,341 

231,040,78 

IQO2  .  . 

391,485 

282,092.00 

IOO^  .  . 

361,210 

233,487.00 

IQO-1.  . 

294,568 

174,649.00 

IOOS  . 

310,056 

175,852.00 

IQO6. 

370,270 

218,749.00 

I  OO7  . 

487,717 

423,133.00 

1908  

44.0,^26 

592,533.00 

IQOO 

405,695 

358,197.00 

IQIO 

415,819 

310,543.00 

IQI  I 

430,768 

323,552.00 

1912  .  . 

400,424 

491,690.00 

I9I*  .  . 

410,003 

794,215.00 

1914.  . 

326,320 

744,784.00 

1915  .  . 

557,347 

621,592.00 

1016  .  .                           ... 

435,430 

360,862.00 

557,288 

459,179.00 

1018  .  . 

577,600 

404,568.00 

IOIO  .  . 

345,799 

327,370.00 

769,488 

917,214.00 

IQ2I  .  .                                  ... 

543,189 

559,282.00 

IQ22  .  . 

684,118 

574,084.00 

IO2^  .  . 

416,232 

258,102.00 

1924  

439,181 

292,981.00 

350 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


IMPORTS  OF  NEROLI  OR  ORANGE  FLOWER  OIL  INTO 
THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1923 


Year 

Quantity  (Ib.) 

Value 

1808.  . 

1,535 

$  18,511.00 

1800.  . 

1,911 

22,673.00 

IQOO.  . 

2,250 

26,893.00 

IQOI  .  . 

4,319 

41,922.00 

IQO2  .  . 

7,761 

64,963.00 

lom  .  . 

5,853 

58,067.00 

I  QO4.  . 

4.  4.4.6 

39,423.00 

I  COS  .  . 

4.QQ5 

28,957.00 

1006.  . 

11,737 

95,759.00 

IOO7  .  . 

8,669 

181,304.00 

1008.  . 

11,271 

118,301.00 

IOOO.  . 

23,184 

1  70,"?  4.2.00 

IQIG.  . 

26,053 

7O.4.11..  OO 

1911  ,  

16,208 

49,306.00 

IQI2  .  . 

17.4.77 

7I.OS4..OO 

IQIt  .  . 

•*8.^6s 

I7I.o-i2.OO 

IQI4.  .  . 

I5.Q28 

71.26S.OO 

1915  

13,251 

31,478.00 

I9l6  

74.447 

66,768.00 

1017.  . 

23,639 

66,394.00 

1918  

32,687 

84,880.00 

IQIQ.  . 

10,595 

52,85O.OO 

I92O  

49,835 

214,919.00 

IO2I  .  . 

22,780 

OS.  227.OO 

IO22  .  . 

51,989 

61,840.00 

1923  

1,590 

67,978.00 

APPENDIX 
IMPORTS  OF  ORANGE  OIL  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1924 


351 


Year 

Quantity  (lt>.) 

Value 

1898.  . 

•j;i.7-t2 

$4.S.  287.00 

1800.  . 

52.378 

68,322.00 

I  OCX).  . 

S7,o6o 

9S.4OS.OO 

IQOI  .  . 

72.2l8 

109,832.00 

IOO2  .  . 

79,l6o 

IO4,I59.OO 

IOO^  .  . 

77,138 

IO7,8o8.OO 

I  OO4.. 

74,8l6 

109,478.00 

IQOS  . 

92,077 

143,555.00 

IQO6. 

74,535 

I22,634.OO 

I  OO7  .  . 

112,834 

I99,O27.OO 

IOO8  . 

71,224 

165,982.00 

I  QUO  . 

87,591 

I5I,86o.OO 

I()K7.  . 

46,814 

65,488.00 

IOII  . 

73,804 

IOO,II5.OO 

IQI2 

97,065 

l68,83I.OO 

IQI-2 

79,797 

155,299.00 

IOTA 

104,491 

222,Il8.OO 

IQIC 

97,014 

140,246.00 

1016.  .                    

97,539 

I34,025.OO 

IQI7  ,  .                                  

170,722 

322,373.OO 

1918.  .          

196,846 

330,506.00 

JQIQ.  .                                     

126,532 

246,202.OO 

IO2O.  .                                

282,349 

953,514.00 

IQ2I  .  .                            

155,765 

543,088.00 

IQ22  .  ,                         

210,034 

558,374.OO 

221,642 

443,093.00 

1924  

202,595 

491,843.00 

352 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


IMPORTS  OF  CITRIC  ACID  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1924 


Year 

Quantity  Ob.) 

Value 

Average  Price  per  Lb. 

1808.  . 

4..  W> 

$I.IO8.SS 

1800.  . 

65.IQO 

i6,6so.oo 

IOOO.  . 

6o,^54. 

14,21^.00 

IQOI  .  . 

76.8O5 

23,038.00 

IOO2  .  . 

74.712 

2  1  ,084.68 

IQOt  .  . 

12.  ^S 

1.S44..OO 

IQO4.  . 

S.S4.6 

I.46I.OO 

I9O5  

2,778 

728.OO 

IOO6. 

6s.  74.7 

2I,O67.OO 

IQO7  . 

140.208 

S7.o6i.oo 

1908       

171.706 

62,804.00 

IOOO     . 

24.^.OIO 

74.2OQ.OO 

IOIO. 

I42.OOI 

4.0.067.00 

1911  

97,847 

28,717.00 

$   .293 

IQI2  .  . 

67,332 

2O,275.OO 

.301 

IQIt.  . 

8,677 

2,9l6.OO 

.336 

IQI4..  . 

652,210 

304,347.00 

.313 

IOIS.  . 

722,414 

447,I^I.OO 

.619 

1016.  . 

171,877 

107,603.00 

.626 

IOI7.  . 

157,528 

91,463.00 

•S8l 

1018.  . 

196,590 

I26,O66.OO 

.64.1 

IOIO.  . 

680,146 

632,364.00 

IQ2O.  . 

1.621,577 

1,426,195.00 

IO2I  .  . 

77O.^I 

632,780.00 

IO22  .  . 

I.  62At802 

609,198.00 

102*1.  . 

82O.^7O 

2SO.84.S.OO 

1924  

744,624 

206,107.00 

APPENDIX  353 

IMPORTS  OF  CITRATE  OF  LIME  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1924 


Year 

Quantity  Ob.) 

Value 

1898  

I  026,467 

$  84  789  oo 

1  899  

1,577,804 

1  57,4-12.00 

IQOO  . 

1,  044..  86t 

204,243  oo 

IOOI  . 

2,416,088 

200.^8^  oo 

IQO2   . 

^.  066.004. 

20^  20^.00 

I9O3  

2,657,110 

240,466.00 

IOO4.  . 

2.Q26.S2Q 

274  130.00 

IQOS  . 

^.4.4.4.,  74.4. 

•ice  728.00 

IOO6  . 

•l,QO^,2^4. 

5^4  O77.OO 

IOO7 

1.872,024. 

726,626.00 

1008 

^.  85*3.105 

580,293.00 

IOOO 

1,017,274. 

489,031.00 

1910    .       

4..  1  I4,2S6 

568,175.00 

IOII  . 

S.2  IQ.S44- 

712,004.00 

IQI2 

5.QO1.5OI 

79I,4l6.OO 

IQI« 

S.S26.0S4. 

7S6.^OO.OO 

1914.  . 

3,119,924 

496,517.00 

1915  .  . 

6,242,244 

1,109,629.00 

I9l6  

8,128,364 

1,763,652.00 

1917.  . 

6,361,458 

1,554,577.00 

I9l8.  . 

4,OI3,6o6 

814,073.00 

1910.  . 

2,773,095 

1,136,057.00 

IO2O.  . 

10,431,314 

2,9O8,O23.OO 

1921  .  . 

5,060,407 

1,104,576.00 

1922  .  . 

8,983,134 

IiI94i964-oo 

IQ3-1  .  . 

1,672,604 

200,143.00 

2,505,444 

256,807.00 

354 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


VO  vO  M   ON  ON             10 
rj-vo   r^«O   ^"             M 

§ 

1 

o> 

HI 

VO   5  to  M   Ov             !•"• 
<O  S         M   ^1"              1O 

M 

I 

M 

•O 

i 

3 

O. 

a 

HI 

SW   to  t->              O 
iO  f^vO               O 

T?  ff  Cfvo"              t^ 

to          to 
to 

3,791,694 

o 

00 

HI 

to     •   O  VO         to 
tf     •   to  O         00 

10     •   C}"<£         M 
(^»    •  ^  T^       O 
r^    *                M 

10 

**• 

VO 
ON 

H 

Oi 

to    •  vo  oo 

to     •  iO  rj- 

vo    -oo  H. 
vo"  •  o"  o" 

N         "MM 

to 

VO_ 

M 

•<*•   . 

1O 

HI 

o> 

HI 

OO      •  iO  t^vO 
00     •  ON  to  O\ 

cT  •  vo"  tC  M~ 

t>.    •  M  vo 

oo"   ! 

00 

1O 

00 

00" 

v> 

a 

to  Ov        tO 

•4-  •<*•      to 
t^  10       O 

•<?  nT        00 
ON             VO 

vo" 

6,464,325 

o 
n 

o 

M 

Ov 

O     •  10  O 
VO     •  ONVO 
r^    "  vo"  cf 
O     '      oo 
vo     •        •* 

1O 

VO 

1 

V 

ct     . 

tO 

! 

O 

00       -MM 

10    •  vo  •* 

VO     •  W   to 
8'  10  O 
)  iO  ON 

IO     ' 

M 

VO 

n 

M 

o> 

HI 

HI     1O   >O   W 

Q  C><1  <O 

VO  O  to  N 
T?  10  fO  O~ 
VO  't  O  t^ 

T? 

M 
1O 
M 

to 

00 

«o 

M 
HI 

O 

M 

r*    •  to  O  •* 

«    •  <s  ON  o 
ON.    •  ON  r~*  ON 

ON     *   iO  cT  nT 
O\     •   «OVO 
^J"    "       vO 

5,220,544 

O 

a 

•<i-    •  p»  10  to 

O      •  00   rfoo 

•<f    '  VO*  to  «" 
iO     '  t^  O\ 

to   •       to 

tO     I 

3,825,014 

* 

'  03     ' 

I 

i 

i 

I4llli|| 

i 

APPENDIX 


355 


to    tn 

Q 

en    X 

W    U> 


w   o 

si 


55 

O 

s 


VO 
ro 
"0 


ON 

s 


M      .ON 

T|-      .  <O 


•  00    TfOO 
'    ^  M  VO 


356 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


IMPORTS  OF  LEMON,  LIME,  AND  SOUR  ORANGE  JUICE 
INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1898-1924 


Year 

Quantity  (lb.) 

Value 

1808  . 

$7^.640.00 

iSOO  .  . 

07.075.4.2 

IQOO.  . 

70.62  s.oo 

IQOI  .  . 

122.4.60.  ^s 

IQO2  .  . 

Q2,C\S4..2O 

IOO^  .  . 

los.  4.^2.00 

IQO4  . 

6s,88-?,67 

IQOS  .  . 

74..O'?7,I  I 

IOO6,  . 

Q4..4.7I.^Q 

IOO7  .  . 

98,658.00 

1908  

102,746.00 

1909  

81,386.00 

1910  

65.^10.00 

IQII  .  . 

88,683.00 

IQI2  .  . 

117,353.00 

1917  .  . 

116,370.25 

IQI4.  . 

110,860.00 

IQIS  .  . 

139,605.00 

iQi6  . 

152,575.00 

1017  . 

180,088.00 

I9l8.  . 

I  I4.4O4.CX3 

IQIQ  .  . 

I,  Q-ii,  4.6s 

277.O1I.OO 

IQ2O.  . 

'*.2S4.6'*'* 

SIS.  OO4.OO 

1021  .  . 

I.CX3O.1OO 

164,827.00 

1022  . 

I.o8^.s8^ 

169,216.00 

I  Q2^  . 

2.4.4.^.4.02 

IQQ.QS8.OO 

IO24.  . 

4,158,396 

565,738.00 

APPENDIX  357 

TOTAL  CARS  AND  BOXES  OF  ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  SHIPPED  FROM  CALIFORNIA 


YEAR 
ENDING 

OR 

ANGES 

Li 

MONS 

1 

"OTAL 

Cars 

Boxes 

Cars 

Boxes 

Cars 

Boxes 

IQO^  .  . 

2I,o8o 

8,094,720 

2,649 

826,500 

23.720 

8  921  220 

IQO4.  . 

26,684 

10,246,656 

2,782 

868.OOO 

20,466 

11,114  656 

IOOS  .  . 

27,342 

10,225,908 

4,274 

1,335,500 

3I,6l6 

II  ceo  K4.2 

IQO6.  . 

23,739 

8,973,342 

3,789 

I,l82,2OO 

27,528 

IO.ISS  542 

IOO7  .  . 

26,319 

10,290,729 

3,507 

1,097,300 

29,826 

11,388  029 

IOO8  . 

27,688 

10,742,944 

4,959 

1,585,000 

12.647 

12.127  Q4.4 

IQOQ  .  . 

34,396 

13,441,016 

6,196 

2,019,896 

4O.S72 

IS.  4.6O  OI2 

IQIO.  . 

28,252 

11,187,792 

4,891 

1,627,480 

33,143 

12,815,272 

IOII  .  .  . 

39,508 

15,645,168 

6,891 

2,315,376 

46,399 

I7.06O  544 

IQI2  .  . 

•*4,547 

13,680,612 

6,133 

2,146,550 

40,680 

15,827,162 

lOI^  .  . 

16,027 

6,346,692 

2,304 

866,304 

l8,33I 

7.212.006 

1014.  . 

45,306 

17,986,482 

3,312 

1,174,242 

48,618 

10.  160.724 

IOIS  . 

39,742 

15,857,856 

7,068 

2,601,024 

46,810 

18.458.880 

1916  

37,897 

15,490,399 

7,186 

2,712,715 

45,083 

18.20^.114 

TOTAL  CARS  OF  ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  SHIPPED  FROM  NORTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


Year  Ending  October  31 

Cars 
of 
Lemons 

Cars 
of 
Oranges 

Total  Cars 
for  Northern 
California 

Total  Cars 
for  State 

,304 

23,729 

1,567 

29,466 

1,734 

3I,6l6 

1,564 

27,528 

2,333 

29,826 

3,150 

32,647 

2,501 

40,572 

2,921 

109 

3,030 

33,143 

2,687 

127 

2,814 

46,399 

4,220 

172 

4,392 

40,680 

2,453 

112 

2,565 

18,331 

6,282 

78 

6,360 

48,338 

6,427 

225 

6,652 

46,812 

6,026 

I7O 

6,196 

45,083 

5,889 

167 

6,056 

54,506 

IQl8.    .                                   

2,773 

I4O 

2,913 

23,456 

3,993 

266 

4,259 

49,436 

5,654 

312 

5,966 

44,724 

6,981 

221 

7,202 

60,116 

5,487 

119 

5,606 

39,499 

7,782 

262 

8,048 

59,707 

7,662 

239 

7,901 

60,735 

358  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

TOTAL  CARS  OF  ORANGES  AND  LEMONS  SHIPPED  FROM  SOUTHERN  CALIFORNIA 


Year  Ending  October  31 


Cars  of 
Lemons 


Cars  of 
Oranges 


Total  Cars  from 
Southern  California 


1887 12 

1888 20 

1889 26 

1890 34 

1891 40 

1892 52 

1893 65 

1894 J45 

1895 335 

1896 565 

189? 1.378 

1898 1,166 

1899 903 

1900 1,447 

1901 2,924 

1902 2,816 

1903 2,649 

1904 2,782 

1905 4,274 

1906 3,789 

1907 3,507 

1908 4,959 

1909 6,196 

1910 4,782 

1911 6,764 

1912 5,96i 

1913 2,192 

1914 2,954 

1915 6,843 

1916 7,oi6 

191? 7,748 

1918 6,197 

1919 9,741 

1920 8,733 

1921 11,584 

1922 9,807 

1923 8,479 

1924 12,861 


2,200 
2,500 
2,782 
3,476 
4,016 
4,400 
5,871 
5,726 
4,687 
7,010 
5,972 
13,987 
9,448 
16,362 
21,173 

I7,57i 
19,776 

25,"7 
25,608 

22,175 
23,986 
24,538 
3i,875 
25,331 
36,821 

30,327 
13,574 
39,024 

33,317 
31,871 
40,702 
14,346 
35,436 
30,025 
4i,330 
24,086 
43,i8o 
39,973 


2,212 
2,520 
2,808 
3,510 
4,056 
4,452 
5,936 
5,871 
5,022 

7,575 

7,350 

15,153 

10,351 

17,809 

24,097 
20,387 
22,425 
27,889 
29,882 
25,964 
27,493 
29,497 
38,071 
30,H3 
43,585 
36,288 
15,768 
41,978 
40,160 
38,887 
48,450 
20,543 
45,177 
38,758 
52,914 
33,893 
51,659 
52,834 


APPENDIX 


359 


3 

O»«OTtOOO  tO>-i   ONM  >Ot^O 

^  o  o\  O  o\  O  to  1000  oo  oo  oo 

£ 

s^f&lHHSM 

d 

'     B 

<o 

s 
11 

t^  O   <O  O  00   M   >O\O   N   O   t--OO 

[/ni/ed  5< 

K 

3s 

M 

°c3 

to  c*  10  t^  t»  ^vo  t^oo  oo  oo  O 

-e 
> 

& 

V 

11 

\O  04  r—  i  o^  Os  ^h  O  O  so  t*—  oo 

8 

»-, 

g 

g-5 

*1""""""0""" 

8 
M 

1 

w  x 

0   •<*• 

§ 

J 

isHiaHSiis 

ries  of  F 

«  w 
3  °> 

W       M 

>*  * 

0 

n  d  w  ^*^5  ^^  O^  O  w  O  ^^O 

S 

50 

t/r  y  "5 

w  3  -0 

2    <  *—  ' 

S  5!  «*• 

H  ^   00 

T3 

§ 
1 

V5         t**  f**00  OO   ^  ^<   ?O  *O  *O^O 

Monthly 

^    <*>    II 

2  «   " 

8*1 

fr 

V 

fc 

cT\c'o6'  ?o  »o  O  to  d*oo*  ^ 

1 

00 

>      >      M 

"      g      " 

S"S  8 

H    en    g 

<  a^ 
w  S  o 

oa^ 

Russia  in 
Asia 

CO    I**  ^VO     O     O     M     *O   M     W     W 

O^  fO  *O  O   *O  tO^O  w 

)I3. 
States,  1913-191 

g^ 

5  B 
»| 

•i 

O        <O  O^  O              O  O        *OVO 
to  r^oo            o  c^       t*  O 

.9  ^ 

s 

1 

i/)  O^  *O               *O  M                ^ 

V* 

1 
s 

1 

O   ^4"  *O  to  C^  tO^O   *O  t^OO   ^  ^^ 
tOcoO  M  r-Moo  toto  ^-oo  ON 

I! 

• 

• 

O 

r-vo  O  to  ^  N  r*  to^o  o\  N  O 

MMMMC4C4C4MMM 

s 

.So 
•o  to 

a 

!  i  1  1  i  I  III  !  S 

n  "All  other, 
from  Comme 

c  v 

«o 

...  OS 
fO  ^  >OSO   t~00   Os  O  *<  P*   to  >^ 

MMMMMMMNMn     PI  »g 

*  Included  i 
t  Compiled 

360 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


PRODUCTION  OF  ORANGES,  GRAPEFRUIT,  AND  LEMONS,  BY  STATES, 

FOR  VARIOUS  PERIODS* 
(Thousand  boxes,  i.  e.,  ooo  omitted) 


STATES 

I889t 

1899! 

X909t 

I9i9t 

I920t 

1921$ 

1922* 

1923* 

1924! 

i92St 

ORANGES 

Florida  

3,147 
1,245 

273 
5,882 
II 
O 

I 

4,888 
17,440 
32 
i 
150 

4 
ii 

I7,ooo 

'    80 

37 
32 
9 

8,100 
22,030 
60 
165 
42 
25 

8,700 
13,726 
80 
165 
50 
30 

11,200 
21,091 
81 
350 
60 
45 
4 

14,000 

23,095 
86 
450 
75 
55 
6 

14,100 
18,100 
86 
o 

75 
o 

12 

I4,IOO 
20,400 
100 
ISO 
IOO 

30 

16 

California.  .  .  . 
Arizona  

Alabama.  .  .  . 

Louisiana.  .  .  . 

Mississippi.  .  . 

Texas  

GRAPEFRUIT 


Florida  

10 

12 

1,062 

|5,5OO 

5,  loo 

7,OOO 

8,200 

9,500 

IO,5OO 

8,200 

California.  .  .  . 

18 

123 

t263 

304 

360 

394 

363 

387 

400 

Mississippi.  .  . 

i 

i 

I 

i 

i 

O 

I 

Arizona  

i 

i 

3O 

•?4 

35 

44 

44 

44 

44 

Alabama    .  .  . 

Louisiana 

2 

Texas  

35 

65 

211 

299 

Florida  

2S^ 

2 

12 

32 

California  

306 

874 

2,756 

t3,949 

5,255 

4,172 

3,492 

6,840 

5,125 

6,000 

*Where  leaders  occur  data  were  not  available. 

fData  from  census  reports. 

^Compiled  from  records  of  Division  of  Crop  and  Livestock  Estimates  for  season  beginning  in  Cal- 
ifornia November  i,  all  other  states  September  i.  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture  Bulletin 
No.  1435  (1926). 


LEMONS:  *!MPORTS  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  COUNTRIES,  YEAR  ENDING 

JUNE  30,  1910-13,  1922,  1923,  AND  NINE  MONTHS 

QULY,  1923 — MARCH,  1924) f 

(In  boxes.    ibox  =  84lbs.) 


Year  Ending 
June  30 

Italy 

Cuba 

Other 
Countries 

Total 

1910  

1.891,45^ 

358 

is.soS 

1.907.^19 

IQII.  . 

I,  SO  1,  664. 

265 

1  4.84.4 

I,6o6,77^ 

IOI2.  .  , 

I.72Q.466 

2O^ 

4.I17 

1,733,802 

1913  

1,778,466 

1,^4.6 

22.764 

I.  802.  576 

IQ22J.  .  . 

789,729 

s.n6 

704.86s 

1923  

1.  441.  60  •* 

188 

20.  •*•*•* 

1.462.124. 

July,  1923—  March,  1924 

611,286 

6.  546 

6l7.8'?2 

*Reported  in  value  only,  1914-December,  1921. 

fCompiled  from  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  United  States,  1910-13,  and   Monthly  Summaries 
of  Foreign  Commerce  of  the  United  States. 

JJanuary-June,  1922. 


APPENDIX 


361 


LEMONS:  IMPORTS  INTO  THE  UNITED  STATES  BY  MONTHS, 

NOVEMBER,  1922 — APRIL,  1924* 

(In  boxes,    i  box  =  84  Ibs.) 


Month 

1921-22 

1922-23 

1923-24 

July.  . 

29 

204,930 

286,704 

August  

68,452 

87,522 

September  

32,614 

103,723 

October  

51,336 

37,149 

November  

29,581 

89,384 

34,874 

December  

12,718 

79,914 

18,636 

January  

27,014 

89,397 

10,818 

February  

47,756 

35,173 

24,884 

March  

125,282 

194,882 

18,300 

April                                  

IO5.72O 

137,283 

May                                  

214,616 

166,099 

June 

262,571 

312,695 

Total  for  year  ending  June  30  .  . 

1,462,159 

(9  mo.)  622,610 

•Compiled  from  Monthly  Summaries  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 


MONTHLY  AVERAGE  WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  CALIFORNIAN  AND  SICILIAN  LEMONS 
IN  NEW  YORK,  JANUARY,  1922,  TO  APRIL,  1924* 

(Expressed  as  flat  averages,  in  dollars,  of  range  of  quotations  per  box  of 
300  to  360  lemons  of  first  quality) 


Month 

is 

22 

19 

23 

19 

24 

Californian 

Sicilian 

Californian 

Sicilian 

Californian 

Sicilian 

Tanuarv.  .  . 

4.54 

5.72 

3-65 

3.58 

3-22 

February  

6.15 

4.78 

5.8l 

4-44 

3-40 

2.84 

March  

5.07 

3.40 

4.98 

3.69 

3-56 

3.42 

April  

4.6l 

3.58 

5.03 

3-05 

3-71 

3-53 

May 

e   eg 

4..  4.6 

6.OQ 

3.80 

6.28 

5.56 

8.69 

5.98 

Tulv 

5.O6 

4.^8 

6.60 

5.65 

August 

C    AA 

4..  24. 

8.66 

6.23 

8.54. 

6.ST 

7.18 

5.33 

October 

IO.78 

7.IO 

^.oo 

3.02 

1O.22 

6.4.2 

•1  .76 

3.06 

December  

7.04 

4-83 

3-73 

2.91 

*New  York  Packer,  weekly. 


362  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

EXPORTS  OF  CITRATE  OF  LIME  AND  CITRIC  ACID,  FROM  ITALY  BY  COUNTRIES,  1913* 


CITRATE 

OF  LIME 

ClTRK 

:  ACID 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

Quantity 
(Ib.) 

Value 

Austria  

510.466 

$78.107 

I,IO2 

$414 

France  

2.IO1,6lO 

1O5.7O7 

20,121 

II.  551 

Germany  

1  .070.  S  54 

155,577 

75.177 

29,616 

Great  Britain  .  .  . 
Netherlands  .... 
United  States.  .. 
All  Others  

1,946,221 
184,966 
2,561,083 

282,831 
26,880 
372,185 

53,572 
160,274 

8,818 
157.84.0 

21,105 
63,140 

3,474 
62,184 

Total  .  . 

8.4O5.QIQ 

1.  221.  577 

4.86.  II  4. 

IOI.5O4 

*From  Movimento  Commerciale  del  regno  d' 'Italia. 


EXPORTS  OF  CITRATE  OF  LIME  AND  CITRIC  ACID  FROM  ITALY,  1909-17* 


YFAB 

CITRATE 

OF  LIME 

ClTRI 

c  ACID 

Quantity 

Value 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

IQOQ  .  . 

5,248,012 

$715.222 

^.527 

$714 

I9IO  

11.  8l4,  067 

I.851.OO2 

1.764 

548 

I9II  

17,064.844 

2.4O6.25O 

-IC.o-i^ 

7.156 

1912  

16.011.080 

2.156.854 

S.O7I 

1.642 

1913  

8,405,919 

1,221,577 

486,114 

191,504 

1914  

12,539,324 

2,063,762 

1,320,114 

635,626 

1915  .  . 

14.770,  6l8 

2.458.157 

1.665.114 

I.  OO1.2O7 

I9l6.  . 

16.  047.061 

1.441.820 

2.1O2.O25 

2,016,078 

1917.  . 

I2.860.7O.1 

2.760.156 

1.8.14.227 

1.60.5.760 

*From  Movtmento  Commerciale  del  regno  d' Italia. 


EXPORTS  OF  CITRATE  OF  LIME  AND  CITRIC  ACID  FROM  ITALY,  BY  COUNTRIES,  1917* 


EXPORTED  TO 

CITRATE  OF  LIME 

CITRIC  ACID 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

France  

1,149,258 
4,209,463 
7,5",072 

454,809 
691,803 

303,573 
10,362 
6,614 
367,066 

Great  Britain  .  .  . 
United  States... 
Servia  

Switzerland  

All  Others  

Total.. 

1  2.86O.70.1 

$2.760.156 

1.8.14.227 

$1.60.5.760 

*From  Statistica  del  Commercio  Speciale  di  Importatione  e  di  Esportozione. 


APPENDIX  363 

EXPORTS  OF  ESSENTIAL  OIL  OF  LEMON  FROM  ITALY,  1909-17* 


Year 

Quantity 
db.) 

Value 

Year 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

1909 
1910 
1911 
1912 
1913 

803,901 

937,123 
1,155,164 
1,141,092 
1,005,966 

$    633,392 
738,357 
1,112,407 

1,498,440 
1,320,997 

1914 
1915 
1916 
1917 

1,329,369 
1,640,247 
1,445,164 
1,151,873 

$2,094,815 
1,794,926 
1,581,447 
957,978 

*From  Movimento  Commerciale  del  regno  d' Italia. 


RATES  OF  IMPORT  DUTIES  ON  CITRUS  PRODUCTS  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES, 

1883-1925 


Year 

Citrate  of  Lime 

Citric 
Acid 

Lemon  Oil 

Lemon  Juice,  Lime  Juice, 
and  Sour  Orange  Juice 

1883.. 

Free 

10  cents 

25% 

Free  (lemon  juice, 

per  Ib. 

lime  juice) 

1890.. 

Free 

10  cents 

Free 

Free 

per  Ib. 

1894.. 

Free 

25% 

Free 

Free 

1897-. 

Free 

7  cents 

Free 

Free 

per  Ib. 

1909.. 

Free 

7  cents 

Free 

Free  (not  more  than 

per  Ib. 

2  per  cent  alcohol) 

1913.. 

i  cent  per  Ib. 

5  cents 

10% 

Free  (not  more  than 

per  Ib. 

2  per  cent  alcohol) 

IQ22 

17  cents 

per  Ib. 

Countries 

Tariff 
No. 

Foreign  Rate 

United  States 
Equivalents  f 
(dollars  per  pound) 

United  States 

41 

$O.OI 

United  Kingdom  

Free 

Free 

France  

263 

Free 

Free 

GermanyJ  

317 

Free 

Free 

Russia§  

112  (9) 

5  roubles  +  10%  per  pood 

Italy: 
General  tariff  

80 

gross 
10  lire  per  quintal 

0.0862 
0.0087 

Canada: 
British  preferential  
Intermediate  

711 
711 

20%  ad  valorem 
35%  ad  valorem 

20%  ad  valorem 
25%  ad  valorem 

General  ||  

711 

35%  a<i  valorem 

25%  ad  valorem 

Australia:! 
British  preferential  
General  Tariff  ||**  

28l 
28l 

Free 
5%  ad  valorem 

Free 
5%  ad  valorem 

Japan  §.  . 

22O 

20%  ad  valorem 

20%  ad  valorem 

*Compiled  from  official  texts  on  file  in  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Department 
of  Commerce,  and  corrected  to  January  i,  1919. 

fConversions  into  United  States  currency  are  based  on  par  value. 

t  Metalloids,  acids,  salts,  and  combinations  of  metalloids  one  with  another  or  with  metals,  not 
specified  above  or  elsewhere. 

JChemicals,  N.  O.  S. 

H The  general  rate  is  applied  to  the  United  States. 

**Articles,  N.  O.  S. 


APPENDIX  365 

RATES  OF  IMPORT  DUTIES  ON  CITRIC  ACID  IN  THE  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES 


Countries 

Tariff 
No. 

Foreign  Rate 

United  States 
Equivalents  f 
(dollars 
perlb.) 

United  States  

I 

$0.05 

United  Kingdom  

Free 

Free 

France  :^ 
General  tariff  §  

238 

75  francs  per  100  kilos 

0.0657 

Minimum  tariff  

238 

50  francs  per  ico  kilos 

0.0438 

Germany: 
General  rate  

279 

8  marks  per  100  kilos 

0.0086 

Conventional  rate||  

279 

Free 

Free 

Austria  Hungary: 
General  tariff  

600 

15  per  cent  ad  valorem 

15% 

Conventional  tariff  

600 

15  per  cent  ad  valorem 

15% 

Italy: 
General  rate  

37f 

50  lire  per  quintal 

0.0438 

Japan.  . 

160 

27.50  yen  per  100  kin 

o.  103  1 

Canada: 
British  preferential  tariff.  . 
Intermediate  tariff  

216 
216 

20  per  cent 
2?M  per  cent 

20% 
27K% 

General  tariff!  

216 

30  per  cent 

30% 

Mexico  

SIS 

5  centavos  per  kilo 

O.OII 

Brazil  

178 

700  reis  per  kilo 

0.081 

Chile  

1.^60 

50  centavos  per  kilo 

0.0828 

Argentine  

-1Q 

7.8  centavos  per  kilo 

0.0341 

Australia: 
British  preferential  tariff.  . 
GeneralS.  .  . 

279 

27Q 

Free 
s  oer  cent  ad  valorem 

Free 
5% 

*Compiled  from  official  texts  on  file  in  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Depart- 
ment of  Commerce,  and  corrected  to  January  I,  1919. 

fConversions  into  United  States  currency  are  based  on  par  value. 

JCitric  acid,  crystallized. 

{General  tariff  applies  to  the  United  States. 

U Conventional  tariff  applies  to  the  United  States. 


366 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  CITRIC  ACID  (CRYSTALS)  AT  NEW  YORK,  1911-19* 
(Cents  per  pound,  spot) 


Month 

1911 

1912 

1913 

1914 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

January 
April.  .  . 
July... 
October 

38^-39 
38X-39 
38K-39 
38K-39 

38K-39 
38^-39 
38#-39 
38#-39 

38K-39 
40-41 
44-44% 
55-55  K 

5i-5iK 
5i-5i>^ 
53-53  % 
90-95 

55-55K 
55-55  K 
55-55  X 
55-55  K 

59-59^ 
64-64% 

55-55^ 
55-55  # 

65-65  K 

12-12% 
12-12% 
12-12% 

12-12% 
82 
82-88 
82-82  % 

125-125% 
125-125% 
98 

93-  94 

*From  Oil,  Paint  and  Drug  Reporter. 


COMPARISON  OF  WHOLESALE  PRICES  OF  CITRIC  ACID  IN  ITALY,  AUSTRALIA,    AND 
THE  UNITED  STATES,  BY  QUARTERS,  1913-18* 


YEARS  AND  QUARTERS 

ACTUAL  PRICE 

RELATIVE  PRICE 

Italy 

Australia 

United  States 

Italy 

Australia 

United 
States 

Market  

Genoa 
i  oo  kg. 

Lire 
572.25 

425.00 
464.17 
476.25 
605.00 
598.33 
588.33 
680.00 
715-00 
681.67 
778.33 
1,034-17 
800.00 
916.67 
1,086.67 
1,065.83 
941.67 

I 

\ 

1,383-33 
1,400.00 
1,385.00 

Melbourne 
Pound 

£    s.       d. 
o    2      3.50 

o     i       7.08 
o     i       9.00 
o     i     10.67 

0       2          3.25 
O       2          5.08 
O       2          7.OO 
0       2       II.5O 

o     3     10.50 
o     3       8.50 
o     3       4-50 
o    3       3.00 
o     3       4-50 
o     3       3-75 
o     3       5-25 
o     3       6.50 
0     3       4-50 
0     3       4-50 
o     3       7-33 
o     3     11.00 
o    4       i.oo 
o    4       2.00 
o     4       2.50 
o    4      6.75 
o    4      5-25 

New  York 
Pound 

Dollars 
0.5070 

.3980 
.4080 
.4500 
•5330 
.5100 
•5350 
•5850 
•7430 
.5690 
.5890 
•6225 
.6080 
.6730 
.6925 

.7175 
•7125 
.6980 
.7500 
.7650 
.7650 
.7940 
•8475 
•8525 
1.0470 

100 

74 
81 
86 
103 
105 
103 
119 
125 
119 
136 
181 
140 
160 
190 
186 
165 

242 

245 
242 

100 

69 
76 

82 

99 

1  06 

"3 
129 
169 
162 

147 
142 

H7 
145 
150 
155 
147 
147 
158 
171 
178 
182 
184 
199 
194 

100 

79 
80 
89 

105 

IOI 

106 
115 
147 

112 

116 

123 

I2O 
133 
137 
142 
141 
38 
148 
151 
151 
157 
I67 

168 
207 

Unit  

Base  pricef  

1913  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

1914  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

1915  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

1916  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

1917  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

1918  First  

Second  

Third  

Fourth  

*Source:     International  Price  Comparisons,  Department  of  Commerce,  Washington,  1919. 
fAverage  actual  prices  from  July,  1913,  to  June,  1914. 
{Statistics  not  available. 


APPENDIX 


367 


S5 

« 

3 

W   fO  IOVO   O\  Ov  N   fO 
IO  1^  O\  IH   O>  O^OO   O\ 
O>Oi-it-.i-iO««l«O 

(fANDAR 

3 

d^cTr^o^tocotoN 

w   1-1         M   N   to  «OVO 
*«i 

0\ 

« 

01 

fc 
O 

J 

o 

£ 

'32 

00   tOPOM   ThiiVO   ON 
00   wvovo   «OOvO   O 
OO'-ivOO'^-t^ON 

5" 

3 

a 

N    W    W    W    •*  1O  -<1-00 

* 

H 

t—  i 

X 
0 

V 

T»-vO  (^  10  ro  •*  «  00 
vg>-iOOrO«OONO 
O'OON'Ot^'-iN 

Pt 
fa 
en 

£ 

ORANGE 

1 

00  00   rCod  0  00  Os  N 
«  r^icM  Ooo  i^O 

N   N   11   «   IO  rj-  «OOO 

O 

CO 

& 

£ 

g 

j 

Q 

£. 

•^"^ 

1000  HI  ro  r^vo  vo  r^ 
>i  •<*•  •*  O  VO  O>vO  CO 
\O  O  ^OO  t^  rj-  w  O 

M 

O 
§ 

§.0 
•—  4 

O 

00  VO   Tj-  «o  i-"   ONOO   O» 
>iOC>>OMloON 

MM             M     M     M     M     M 

* 

g 

8 

S 

O   PO  1OO   O»00   >OOO 
rl-  ON  M   M   Ov  <*)VO   O> 
TJ-  t«)OO   ONOO   N   rOOO 

X 

f 

1 

•5 

oo  \o  •<*•  •«$-  1-  g>oo  o> 

ONCO    O\  O>  O   O   O>  to 

•^•OOi>'N'-ir~to 

I 

j 

MtO«WI-ll-IMM 

o 

X 

a 
3 

o 
jj 

6 

1- 

N   rOONt^^eO»^>-i 
O\  ONVO   ^vO   t^  ON  w 
ONfOM>-iOOOO>O 

S 

O.O 

go 
o 

•i   t^O^O   «O  M   fOO 
Tt-  O   P*   Tj-  rt-  1/500   r» 
<->   O   «O\O   rj-  «   M  vO 

H 
0 

* 

o> 

M 

§ 

i 

V 

O  ON-^-«OMOO  O  t^ 
ON  r-vo  O>  M  O  >o  r^ 
vo  >o  r-oo  fo  >o  fi  vo 

fe 
f> 

1 

H 

m 

BERGAMO 

"3 

CO  rDVO   «   Tj-00   11   »O 

10  O  t^  >o  O  r-oo  n 

00  00    •*«    tOVO    ONOO 
^=                      n"  M"  M"  ff 

V 

8 
Q 

o 

to 
O 

d 

§ 
j 

>, 

»O>OO>NVO   COI^ON 
OO   ON^-OOO   t^fOrO 

r*  O  11  t^  Tf  ON  r-oo 

u 

w" 
o 

2 

< 

O 

go 

5 

t^  ONVO    N  VO    Tt-  11  OO 

•oronto-tONO  N 

MMMNCOP»«O^ 

* 

monthly 

• 

O 

§ 

S 
S 

1 

1 

• 
< 
V 

>« 

liminary  fi 

£ 

N   to  rh  1OVO   t^OO   ON 

* 

ONONONONONONONON 

368 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


o 
0 


I 
in 


o 


00              1              10             HI               O             VO              « 

OO           N           ^         CM           1O          HI           t>. 

a 

to 

s 

«o      o       r«»      HI       «o      <o      oo 

oo      v5       o       •*              oo       H, 

J 

5 

M 

^J1 

0 

<ift 

9 

w 

8 

d 

o 

S**^ 

vO      '  P*         t^        O         ^        W        OO 

M           ON        OO           C*          HI          OO          00 

$ 

VO 

s 
5 

O        VO         W         to                   ^       >O 

to 

M          00           «O          «O        VO          00           M 

oo       Th      N       O       *n      oo       t— 

0\ 

oo 

I*»        ON        to        O         *J"        W         f 

o 

"Z 

^ 

W                              HI                                               HI 

C4 

0 

Mi 

* 

s 

^ 

" 

III 
o 

O 

1 

vO        to       HI       \O        P*        W       vO 
to       ON       N       HI       oo       to       <o 

0 

tO          W           ON          ON          Hi           HI          VO 

»o 

o 

oo       >o      ^r      w       to      co      HI 

to                   HI                   vO 

M 

0 

3 

1O             HI              Tj-             HI              O            VO             OO 

1O         O          «O         O          •*         f»         N 

HI       ON      to     oo_      «o      O^      r* 

06"     o      <£     06"     vb"     oo"     06" 

to 

^ 

1 

Mi 

«* 

O 

to 

O 

J 

O 

.•a^ 

vo        w        HI        ON      vo        r^       « 
O        c*        rj-       r-       t»      oo       vo 

VO 

§<=• 

to       •**•       f<        HI        N       vo        O 

£ 

N 

| 

| 

\ 

| 

E 

\ 

; 

§ 

H             •            « 

2            "2             a 

•j 

o     4->     .2      §5      iH      ^     o 

•g 

fe       O       Pi       C/3       *I<       H^       <« 

E- 

APPENDIX  369 

CITRIC  ACID  MANUFACTURED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES,  1904-17 


Year 

Quantity 
(lb.) 

Year 

Quantity 

IQO4.  . 

2.26^.6^1 

IOIS  .  . 

•^iv.ygs 

1909  

2,102,256 

1916  

4,188,538 

1914.  . 

2,729,943 

1917  

4,082,897 

BERGAMOT,  SYNTHETIC — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


July,  1915 $2.50-12.75 

October,  1915 2.50-  2.75 

January,  1916 2.50-  2.75 

April,  1916 2.90-  3.00 

July,  1916 2.90-  3.00 

October,  1916 2.90-  3.00 

January,  1917 2.75-  3.00 

April,  1917 2.75-  3.00 

July,  1917 3.00-  3.20 

October,  1917 3.00-  3.50 

January,  1918 3-5Q-  4.00 

*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


April,  1918 $3.50-14.00 

July,  1918 3-75-  3-89 

October,  1918 4.00-  4.25 

January,  1919 4.00-  4.25 

April,  1919 4.00-  4.25 

July,  1919 4.00-  4.25 

October,  1919 4.00-  4.25 

January,  1920 4.00-  4.25 

April,  1920 4.00-  4.25 

July,  1920 4.00-  4.25 

October,  1920 4.00-  4.25 


OIL  OF  LIME,  EXPRESSED — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


August,  1914 $3-25-$3-50 

January,  1915 3.00-  3.10 

April,  1915 2.65-  2.75 

July,  1915 2.75-  2.85 

October,  1915 2.75-  3.00 

January,  1916 2.75-  3.00 

April,  1916 2.75-  3.00 

July,  1916 3-i5-  3-25 

October,  1916 3-15-  3.25 

January,  1917 3-5°~  4-oo 

April,  1917 5-00-  5.25 

July,  1917 5-50-  6.00 

October,  1917 6.50 

*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 

fNominal 


January,  1918 $5.75~$6.oo 

April,  1918 5-50-  5-75 

July,  1918 5.25-  5.50 

October,  1918 5.00-  5.25 

January,  1919 4-9O-  5.00 

April,  1919 4.50-  4.75 

July,  1919 3.95-  4.00 

October,  1919 3-75~  3-85 

January,  1920 3-5O-  3-75 

April,  1920 5-50-  5.75 

July,  1920 t 

October,  1920 5-5o-  5.60 


OIL  OF  LIME,  DISTILLED — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


August,  1914 $o.75-$o.8o 

January,  1915 i-35~  i-4° 

April,  1915 1. 10-  1.15 

July,  1915 i  .60 

October,  1915 2.35 

January,  1916 2.25-  2.35 

April,  1916 2.25-  2.50 

July,  1916 2.75-  3.00 

October,  1916 2.75-  3.00 

January,  1917 2.75-  3.00 

April,  1917 2.50-  2.75 

July,  1917 2.75-  2.85 

October,  1917 2.75-  2.85 

*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


January,  1918 $2.25~$2.35 

April,  1918 $2.00-  2.25 

July,  1918 1.90-  2.00 

October,  1918 1.85-  1.90 

January,  1919 1.65-    .75 

April,  1919 1.50-    .60 

July,  1919 1.15-    .25 

October,  1919 i.io-    .15 

January,  1920 i.oo-     .10 

April,  1920 i.oo-     .25 

July,  1920 2.25-  2.40 

October,  1920 i-75~  1.85 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


NEROLI-BIGARADE — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


August,  1914 $40.oo-$5O.oo 

January,  1915 55-oo 

April,  1915 35-00-  40.00 

July,  1915 35-00-  40.00 

October,  1915 35-oo-  50.00 

January,  1916 35-OO-  50.00 

April,  1916 35-00-  50.00 

July,  1916 35-00-  50.00 

October,  1916 35.00-  50.00 

January,  1917 35-OO-  50.00 

April,  1917 35-00-  50.00 

July,  1917 40.00-  50.00 

October,  1917 75-oo-  78.00 

*From  Oil.  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
f  Nominal. 


January,  1918 $7o.oo-$8o.oo 

April,  1918 70.00-  80.00 

July,  1918 70.00-  80.00 

October,  1918 80.00-100.00 

January,  1919 80.00-120.00 

April,  1919 130.00 

July,  1919 120.00 

October,  1919 120.00 

January,  1920 120.00 

April,  1920 120.00 

July,  1920 120.00 

October,  1920 


OIL  OF  ORANGE,  SWEET  ITALIAN — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


Quarters,  1913  :f 

First $2.85 

Second 3.11 

Third 3.71 

Fourth 3.56 

Quarters,  1914:  t 

First 2.95 

Second 2.45 

Third 2.61 

Fourth 1.88 

Quarters,  1915:! 

First 1.56 

Second 1.61 

Third 1.85 

Fourth 1.76 

Quarters,  1916:! 

First 1.86 

Second 2.53 

Third 2.83 

Fourth. .  .2.86 


Quarters,  191 7  :f 

First $3-oo 

Second 2.86 

Third 3.03 

Fourth 2.80 

Quarters,  1918  :f 

First 2.55 

Second 2.56 

Third 2.58 

Fourth 3.00 

Quarters,  1919  :J 

First 2.90 

Second 3.10 

Third 2.90 

Fourth 3.25 

Quarters,  1920:^ 

First 5.25 

Second 9.00 

Third 10.75 

Fourth 6.25 


*From  War  Industries  Board  Bulletin  No.  50  and  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
tQuarterly  prices,  or  average  of  monthly  prices  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
JLow,  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


ORANGE,  BITTER — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


April,  1915 $i.75-$2.oo 

July,    1915 2.00-    2.10 

October,  1915 2.00-  2.10 

January,  1916 2.00-  2.10 

April,  1916 1-95-  2.00 

July,  1916 2.25-  2.75 

October,  1916 2.25-  2.75 

January,  1917 2.50-3.25 

April,  1917 2.35-  2.85 

July,  1917 2.40-  3.40 

October,  1917 2.40-  2.60 

January,  1918 2.15-  2.25 

•From  Oil,  Point,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


April,  1918 $  .75-$i.8o 

July,  1918 75-  i. 80 

October,  1918 75-  1.80 

January,  1919 75-  2.00 

April,  1919 .75-  2.00 

July,  1919 2.00-  2.25 

October,  1919 2.25-  2.35 

January,  1920 3-75~  4-oo 

April,  1920 7.00-  7.50 

July,  1920 7.75-  8.00 

October,  1920 5-75-  6.00 


APPENDIX 


ORANGE,  WEST  INDIAN — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


AugUSt,   1914 $2.05~$2.IO 

January,  1915 1.50-  1.60 

April,  1915 1.25-  1.35 

July,  1915 1.50-  1.60 

October,  1915 1.70-  1.75 

January,  1916 1.50-1.60 

April,  1916 1-75-  1-80 

July,  1916 2.50-  2.75 

October,  1916 2.75-  2.80 

January,  1917 2.25-  2.35 

April,  1917 2.35-  2.45 

July,  1917 2.67-  2.75 

October,  1917 2.30-  2.45 

*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


January,  1918 $2.oo-$2.io 

April,  1918 1.80-  1.90 

July,  1918 i. 80-  1.90 

October,  1918 i-75~  1.80 

January,  1919 i-75~  1-80 

April,  1919 i-75-  1.80 

July,  1919 1.90-  2.00 

October,  1919 2.35-  2.40 

January,  1920 4.00-  4.25 

April,  1920 7.50-  7.75 

July,  1920 9.00-  9.25 

October,  1920 6.00-  6.25 


BERGAMOT — PRICES  PER  POUND* 


August,  1914 $5-oo-$5-25 

January,  1915 3.75 

April,  1915 3-00-  3.15 

July,  1915 3-i5-  3-50 

October,  1915 3-i5~  3-5° 

January,  1916 3.50 

April,  1916 3-30-  3-5° 

July,  1916 3-70-  3-75 

October,  1916 5-5O-  5-75 

January,  1917 6.25-  6.50 

April,  1917 5-75-  6.00 

July,  1917 6.00-  6.25 

October,  1917 6.00-  6.20 

*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


January,  1918 $6.oo-$6.2o 

April,  1918 5.50-  6.00 

July,  1918 5.60-  5.75 

October,  1918 7-5o-  8.00 

January,  1919 7.00-  7.50 

April,  1919 6.40-  6.50 

July,  1919 5-i5-  5-50 

October,  1919 4.75-  5.00 

January,  1920 5.00-  5.25 

April,  1920 7.50-  7.75 

July,  1920 6.75-  7.00 

October,  1920 6.25-  6.50 


CEDRAT  OIL — IMPORTS  FOR  CONSUMPTION — REVENUE 


Fiscal  Year 

Rates  of  Duty 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

Duty 
Collected 

Value  per 
Unit  of 
Quantity 

Actual  and 
Computed 
Ad  Valorem 
Rate 
(Per  Cent) 

1908  

Free 

47 

$    263 

$5-6o 

IQOQ  .  . 

Free 

2Q7 

95° 

3  .20 

IQIO     . 

Free 

2IO 

612 

2.01 

IQII  .  . 

Free 

129 

955 

7.4O 

•   • 

IQI2  .  . 

Free 

4-24 

1,329 

•».!•» 

•   • 

IQI1  .  . 

Free 

115 

555 

4..8^ 

•    • 

IOI4..  . 

Free 

86 

4IS 

4..81* 



IOI4.  . 

20  per  cent 

73 

355 

$71 

4.86 

IOIS  .  . 

20  per  cent 

788 

3,721 

744. 

4.72 

1016  .  . 

20  per  cent 

438 

1,966 

•to-i 

4.48 

1018.  . 

20  per  cent 

2OO 

158 

71 

•  7O 

IQIQ.  . 

20  per  cent 

336 

531 

106 

I.S7 

20  oo 

372  CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

OIL  OF  BERGAMOT — PRICES  PER  POUND* 

Quarters,  1913:!  Quarters,  1917:! 

First $6.43  First $6.00 

Second 6.00  Second 5.91 

Third 5.70  Third 6.00 

Fourth 6. 13  Fourth 6.00 

Quarters,  1914:!  Quarters,  1918:! 

First 6.03  First 5.66 

Second 5.48  Second 5.50 

Third 5-53  Third 5.78 

Fourth 4.75  Fourth 7.3  3 

Quarters,  1915 :f  Quarters,  1919:$ 

First 3.38  First 6.90 

Second 3.08  Second 6.40 

Third 3-13  Third 5.15 

Fourth 3.25  Fourth 4.5  o 

Quarters,  I9i6:f  Quarters,  1920:$ 

First 3.41  First 5.00 

Second 3.61  Second 7.50 

Third 4-35  Third 6.75 

Fourth 5.41  Fourth 6.25 

*Prom  War  Industries  Board  Bulletin  No.  50  and  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
tQuarterly  prices  or  average  monthly  prices  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
JLow,  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


OIL  OF  LEMON — PRICES.  DOLLARS  PER  POUND* 

Quarters,  1913:!  Quarters,  1917  :f 

First $2.70  First $1.18 

Second 3.33  Second 1.13 

Third 4.46  Third i.n 

Fourth 3.55  Fourth 1.06 

Quarters,  1914:!  Quarters,  1918:! 

First 2.73  First 98 

Second 2.15  Second 1.13 

Third 2.16  Third 1.08 

Fourth 1.53  Fourth 1.43 

Quarters,  1915:!  Quarters,  1919:$ 

First i. ii  First 1.60 

Second 1.05  Second 1.20 

Third i.n  Third 1.15 

Fourth i.oi  Fourth 1.15 

Quarters,  I9i6:f  Quarters,  19204 

First i.oo  First — 1.45 

Second 95  Second 2.00 

Third 91  Third —1.65 

Fourth i.oi  Fourth 1.15 

*From  War  Indutries  Board  Bulletin  No.  50  and  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter 
tQuarterly  prices,  or  average  of  monthly  prices  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 
JLow,  first  Monday  in  each  month,  from  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter. 


APPENDIX 
BERGAMOT  OIL — IMPORTS  FOR  CONSUMPTION — REVENUE 


373 


Fiscal  Year 

Rate  of  Duty 

Quantity 
(lb.) 

Value 

Duty 
Collected 

Value  per 
Unit  of 
Quantity 

Actual  and 
Computed 
Ad  Valorem 
Rate 
(Per  Cent) 

1908  

Free 

94,967 

$284,173 

$2.99 

1909  

Free 

89,957 

281,211 

3.I3 

1910  

Free 

38,155 

133,490 

1.49 

1911  

Free 

65,199 

222,225 

1.4.1 

1012  .  . 

Free 

67.S26 

IIS.  227 

4.67 

ion  .  . 

Free 

64.2  so 

1IO.81S 

4.84. 

1914.  . 

Free 

1  1  .494 

33,301 

2.QO 

1914..  . 

20  per  cent 

25,153 

105,329 

$2  1  ,065 

4.IQ 

2O.OO 

IOIS    . 

20  per  cent 

56.781 

150,062 

3O  OI2 

2.QS 

2O.OO 

1916  

20  per  cent 

60,44.0 

178,300 

35,66O 

2.S6 

2O.OO 

IQI7  .  . 

20  per  cent 

SO.6^4 

I7O  182 

is.8i6 

•2.CC 

2O.OO 

1918  

20  per  cent 

57,689 

241,46s 

48.2Q1 

4.18 

2O.OO 

IQIQ     . 

20  per  cent 

41  262 

185  318 

17  064 

4.  SO 

2O.OO 

OIL  OF  LIMES — IMPORTS  FOR  CONSUMPTION — REVENUE 


Fiscal  Year 

Rate  of  Duty 

Quantity 
Ob.) 

Value 

Duty 
Collected 

Value  per 
Unit  of 
Quantity 

Actual  and 
Computed 
Ad  Valorem 
Rate 
(Per  Cent) 

1008.  . 

Free 

6  76s 

$4.076 

$O.74 

IQOO  .  . 

Free 

2I.OQI 

0.07-1 

.4S 

Free 

8.O2S 

9,137 

.14 

Free 

9.122 

0.466 

.04 

IQI2  .  . 

Free 

12  821 

9.i6s 

.71 

1913  

Free 

I1.O7S 

15,025 

.15 

1914.  . 

Free 

4.72  S 

7.641 

.62 

1014.  . 

20  per  cent 

II.8l4 

i6.l8s 

$1.217 

.17 

2O.OO 

igiS  .  . 

20  per  cent 

O.IS4 

9,27O 

I.8SS 

.OI 

2O.OO 

1916  

20  per  cent 

10.  76s 

2O.6O4 

S.QlS 

.so 

2O.OO 

1917  .  . 

20  per  cent 

26.SSI 

4Q.OOI 

9.800 

.84 

2O.OO 

1918  

20  per  cent 

20.117 

71.68s 

14.717 

2.S2 

2O.OO 

1919  

20  per  cent 

16,272 

24.27^ 

4.847 

1.40 

2O.OO 

374 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


NEROLI-SYNTHETIC  AND  OIL  OF  NEROLI,  PETALE — PRICES,  DOLLARS  PER  POUND* 


Neroli,  Synthetic: 

April,  1916 $i8.oo-$20.oo 

July,  1916 18.00-  20.00 

October,  1916 18.00-  20.00 

January,  1917 18.00-  20.00 

April,  1917 18.00-  20.00 

July,  1917 18.00-  20.00 

October,  1917 18.00-  24.00 

January,  1918 18.00-  24.00 

April,  1918 18.50-  25.00 

July,  1918 18.50-  24.00 

October,  1918 18.50-  24.00 

January,  1919 20.00-  30.00 

April,  1919 18.50 

July,  1919 18.50 

October,  1919 14.00-  15.00 

January,  1920 14.00-  15.00 

April,  1920 14.00-  15.00 

July,  1920 14.00-  15.00 

October,  1920 14.00-  16.00 


Oil  of  Neroli,  Petale: 
January,  1913. . . . 

April,  1913 , 

July,  1913 

October,  1913... ., 
January,  1914.... 


$45-oo 
45-oo 
45-00 
45.00 
45-00 


Oil  of  Neroli,  Petale—  Continued: 


April,  1914. . . , 

July,  1914 

October,  1914. 
January,  1915. 

April,  1915 

July,  1915 

October,  1915.. 
January,  1916. 
April,  1916.. . . 

July,  1916 

October,  1916., 
January,  1917. 

April,  1917 

July,  1917 

October,  1917.. 
January,  1918. 
April,  1918. . .. 

July,  1918 

October,  1918.. 
April,  1919. . . . 

July,  1919 

October,  1919.. 
January,  1920. 
April,  1920. . . . 

July,  1920 

October,  1920.. 


$45-oo 
51.00 
60.00 

53-33 

50.00 

46.66 

45-oo 

45-00 

45-00 

45-00 

45-oo 

45-oo 

50.00 

63-33 

83-33 

80.00 

80.00 

80.00 

90.00 

1 20.00 

130.00 

130.00 

130.00 

130.00 

130.00 


*From  Oil,  Paint,  and  Drug  Reporter  and  War  Industries  Board  Bulletin  No.  50 
fNominal. 


REFERENCES  FOR  APPENDIX 
WALLSCHLAEGER,  F.  O. 

"Citrus  Production  in  the  United  States  and  Competing  Countries," 
California  Citrograph,  IV,  No.  6  (April,  1919),  150,  155. 

U.  S.  TARIFF  COMMISSION 

Bulletin  A-I2,  Tariff  Information  Surveys.    1921.    Washington,  D.  C. 

U.  S.  TARIFF  COMMISSION 

Bulletin  No.  13,  Tariff  Information  Series.    1920.    Washington,  D.  C. 


INDEXES 


AUTHOR  INDEX 


Adam,  152,  165 
Agardh,  107 
Albeo,  Edward,  311 
Allen,  302 

Allen,  Alfred  H.,  164,  199 
Allport,  W.  A.,  10 
Ames,  S.  L.f  10 
Arundel,  S.  J.,  347 
Atwood,  268 
Audrlk,  1 02 

Baetcke,  E.,  16 

Bailey,  F.  S.,  84,  102 

Bailey,  H.  S.,  248 

Baker,  92 

Balanza,  309,  310 

Ball,  Nigel,  G.,  85,  103 

Bandrimont,  103 

Barbier,  P.,  27,67 

Barf  old,  103 

Battiet,  103 

Bauer,  103 

Beau,  156 

Beck,  C.  R.,  17,  28,  71 

Beckmann,  16 

Behal,  67 

Benatius,  174,  188 

Bennett,  A.  H.,  57,  65,  67 

Bennett,  C.  T.,  192,  194,  196 

Berte,  E.,  22,  29,  30,  38,  58,  65,  67,  71 

Berthelot,  25,  67 

Bertolo.P.,  167,  169 

Bertram,  J.,  15,  67 

Bertrand,  85,  86,  88,  103 

Berzelius,  75 

Bigelow,  W.  D.,  93,  103,  108 

Bioletti,  Frederic  T.,  142,  144 

Blanchet,  25,  67 

Bocker,  E.,  33,  34,  35,  67 

Boecker,  23 

Bonastre,  174,  188 

Bonavia,  E.,  45,  68 

Borntrager,  Arthur,  18,  68 

Borodin,  159 


Boswigi,  G.,  36 
Bouchardat,  G.,  26 
Boullay,  174,  180,  188 
Bourquelot,  74,  75,  78,  80,  85,  86, 

96,  103 

Bouveault,  L.  27,  67 
Boyles,  P.  R.,  93,  98 
Braconnet,  73,  74,  79,  103 
Braden,  A.  C.,  120 
Brook,  B.  O.,  68 
Brooks,  B.T.,  192,  194 
Brooks,  R.  O.,  60 
Brown,  C.  A.,  85,  86,  103 
Brown,  C.  A.,  Jr.,  103 
Brown,  W.  Duval,  339 
Bruylants,  P.,  61,  62,  65,  68 
Buchner,  164 
Burgess,  H.  E.,  17,  25,  26,  27,  28,  30,  46, 

67,  68,  188,  298,  300 
Burke,  C.  E.,  114 

Caldwell,  J.  S.,  94,  95,  96,  104 

Capitaine,  15,  25,  42,  71 

Carcano,  334 

Cavendish,  Thomas,  307 

Chace,  Edward  McKay,  4,  8,  22,  25,  29, 
30,  31,  62,  63,  64,  65,  68,  120,  234, 
239,  248,  259,  314,  326,  339 

Chapus,  A.,  178,  183,  188,  192,  194 

Charabot,  E.,  16,  177,  193,  195,  196 

Cheney,  Arthur  S.,  164,  326,  339 

Chevron,  104 

Child,  J.  F.,  25,  27,  67,  68,  298 

Chiris,  Leon,  185 

Chodnew, 75,  104 

Claudon,  142 

Cocco-Ortu,  F.,  334 

Coit,  J.  E.,  no,  199 

Collens,  A.  E.,  276,  277 

Cooke,  E.  W.,  170 

Crismer,  L.,  17,  28,  68 

Cross,  76,  104 

Cruess,  William  Vere,  98,  108,  114,  146, 
164, 165,  173,  245 

Currie,  James  N.,  151,  152,  165 


377 


378 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Czapek,  Frederick,  107 

Davenport,  T.  J.  W.  C.,  10 

Davis,  S.  M.,  306 

De  Barry,  107 

De  la  Dardye,  E.  de  Bourgade,  307,  312 

Deniges,  52,  53,  68,  80,  81,  84,  85,  98, 

156,  157,  165 
De  Vry,  162 
Dick,  E.  M.,  128 
Diedrichs,  A.,  168,  169 
Doebner,  26,  68,  183 
Douglas,  R.,  93,  98 
Downs,  C.  R. 
Dowzard,  E.t  32,  68 
Dumas,  25,  68 
Dunlap,  F.  L.,  114,  165 
Dunlap,  W.  B.,  165 
Dunlap,  W.  R.,  218,  220,  221,  225,  229, 

240 

Ehestadt,  48 
Ellis,  C.,  120 
Elze,  P.,  15,  1 6,  68 
Emmanuel,  Victor,  334 
Engels,  1 88 

Erdmann,  E.,  180,  196,  198 
Erdmann,  E.  and  H.,  188,  199 
Erdmann,  H.f  180,  196,  198 
Euler,  H.,  104 

Fawcett,  H.  S.,  8 

Fellenberg,  Th.  von,  80,  89,  90,  91,  104 

Fenaroli,  P.,  44,  69 

Fernbach,  August,  120,  165 

Figner,  106 

Fisch,  1 68,  169 

Fischer,  E.,  60 

Fischer-Truenfeld,  R.  von,  308,  312 

Flatau,  39,  69 

Fluckiger,  180 

Fony6,  A.,  114 

Fortmann,  G.,  39,  69 

Franke,  17,  69 

Freire,  Dario,  312 

Fr6my,  73,  74,  75,  76,  78,  79,  80,  83,  85, 
87,  89,  104 

Fresenius,  157 
Fromberg,  75,  104 
Funk,  W.  C.,  258 

Gadais,  L.  and  J.,  165 
Gailey,  84 


Gaines,  A.  P.,  170 

Gardiner,  107 

Garelli,  148 

Garnett,  H.,  57,  69 

Gattefosse,  168,  169 

Geerlig,  Prinsen,  272 

Gere,  W.  B.,  120 

Gerhardt,  25,  69 

Giampetro,  A.  W.,  10 

Gildmeister,  E.,  25,  26,  27,  37,  38,  39, 

69,  165,  188,  199 
Gildemeister,  E.,  and  Hoffman,  F.,  230, 

240,  300 
Girard,  104 
Godeffroy,  R.,  17,  69 
Goldthwaite,  Nellie  E.,  90,  95,  108 
Gore,  Howard  C.,  93,  94,  103,  114,  120, 

125,  165 

Gowing-Scopes,  156,  165 
Graef,  C.,  120 
Gras,  Jean,  177 
Gray,  C.  E.,  120 
Greaves,  106 
Green,  R.,  104 
Greenhalgh,  N.,  37,  71,  306 
Grimaux,  152,  165 
Grosjean,  291,  292,  306 
Grunhut,  157 
Guibert,  104 

GullJ,  S.,  46,  69,  191,  194 
Gurber,  A.,  120,  121 

Haas,  R.  W.  Tromp  de,  76,  90,  104 
Haensel,  66,  198,  199 
Halliday,  84 
Hanbury,  180 
Hanus,  69 
Hardy,  275 
Hardy,  W.  B.,  91,  104 
Harlay,  V.,  105 
Harris,  G.  D.,  170 
Harrison,  H.  H.,  170 
Haussler,  158,  165 
Hawl  y,  L.  F.,  199 
Hebert,  105 
Heizer,  O.  S.,  341 
Henius,  Max,  114,  165 
HeYissey,  74,  75,  78,  80,  85,  86,  96,  103 
Herzfeldt,  76,  105 

Hesse,  A. ,40, 69, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 
184,  193,  194 


AUTHOR  INDEX 


379 


Hewer,  168,  169 

Heyer,  69 

Hiltner,  R.  S.,  64 

Hiltner,  R.  S.,  69 

Hill,  157 

Hirzel,  H.,  184,  188 

Hodgson,  R.  W.,  199 

Hoffman,  158,  162 

Hoffman,  F. — La  Roche  &  Co.,  194 

Hofmeister,  107 

Holmes,  H.  N.,  92 

Hood,  G.  C.,  69 

Hood,  S.  C.,  10,  12,  43,  44,  69 

Howard,  93 

Howard,  B.  J.,  173 

Howe,  H.  A.,  92 

Hughes,  H.  A.,  170 

Hunt,  Charles  H.,  105 

Huthig,  O.,  178,  179,  196,  197,  199 

Ischii,  107 

Jahns,  E.,  190,  194 

Javillier,  105 

Jeancord,  P.,  174,  189,  196,^199 

Jeffries,  F.  L.,  98 

Johnson,  M.  O.,  98,  120 

Jones,  A.  T.,  170 

Kabsch,  107 

Kellogg,  J.  L.,  120 

Kern,  C.  A.,  120 

Kerschbaum,  M.,  180 

Kestner,  P.,  120 

Kirchner,  105 

Klapproth,  154,  165 

Kleber,  C.,  23,  24,  27,  64,  65,  69 

Kobayashi,  S.,  168,  169 

Kolb,  105 

Koenig,  107 

Krug,  157 

Kueny,  159 

Kuever,  R.,  114 

Kuever,  R.  A.,  165 

Labbe,  H.,  39,  69,  187 
Lacava,  334 
Ladell,  R.  S.,  27,  69 
Lafont,  J.,  25,  26,  70 
Lalone,  G.,  176,  193 


Lawrence,  153 
Lebreton,  158 
Libby,  F.  M.,  170 
Liotta,  13,  14,  70 
Liphard,  70 
Lipman,  105 
Lippman,  von,  105 
Litterer,  G.,  192,  194 
Little,  70 
Luca  de,  38,  39 
Luce  de,  70 
Lurssen,  107 

McClendon,  J.  P.,  128 

McDermott,  F.  Alex.,  10, 165, 173,  247, 

259 
McDill,  R.  D.  O.,  93,  98,  112 

Maclntyre,  J.  C.,  279,  280,  281,  285, 
306 

McKay,  W.  S.,  10,  120 

McNair,  James   B.,   97,  98,  101,  105, 

1 08 

Mallevre,  85,  86,  88,  103 
Mangin,  73,  77,  78,  105,  107 
Marescalchi,  165 
Marshall,  Charles  F.,  165 
Martin,  151 

Massignon,  184,  185,  189 
Mazuyer,  L.,  308,  312 
Meldrum,  W.  B.,  235 
Menagio,  189 
Mendelsohn,  F.,  114 
Merrell,  I.  S.,  120 
Merrell,  L.  C,  120 
Meyer,  107 
Millon,  184,  189 
Mohl,  107 

Molinari,  Ettore,  165,  240 
Monti,  Eudo,  114,  121,  122,  123 
Moreschini,  D.f  32,  70 
Moricca,  G.,  17,  70 
Moore,  J.  C.,  281,  283,  306 
Moslinger,  157 
Mulder,  105,  107 
Mulder,  G.  J.,  17,  28,  70,  75, 
Muller,  25,  26,  27 
Munson,  L.  S.,  173 
Muntz,  105 

Naudin,  L.t  184,  189 


38o 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Oehme,  R.,  120 
Oesterle,  108,  159 
Ogston,  281,  283 
Ohme,  C.,  17,  70 
Oliveri,  V.,  27,  70 
Oppenheim,  A.,  25,  70 
Orsini,  Flavio,  174 
Osburn,  W.  S.,  120 
O'Sullivan,  76 
Ottair,  165 

Pacrette,  108 

Page,  T.  H.,  17,  25,  27,  68 

Palmer,  R.  C.,  199 

Pancksch,  O.,  170 

Parloa,  Maria,  109 

Parozzoni,  A.,  154,  166 

Parry,  E.  J.,  23,  28,  31,  36,  42,  57,  58, 

65,  66,  67,  70,  188,  189,  192,  194, 

197,  198,  199,  302 
Passy,  J.,  197,  199 
Pasteur,  Lous,  142 
Patane",  GM  29,  31,  32,  70 
Paterno,  148 
Payen,  78,  105 
Pellet,  105 
Peratoner,  148 
Ferret,  M.,  166 
Pfeffer,  166 
Piesse,  42 

Pillet,  L.,  177,  188,  195,  196,  199 
Pitino,  12 
Piver,  184,  189 
Plisson,  189 
Pollard,  J.  S.,  170 
Pomeranz,  C.,  1 6,  70 
Poore,  Homer  D.,  148,  164,  166,  234, 

235,  239 

Portae,  Jo.  Batt.,  189 
Poumarede,  105,  106 
Power,  Frederick  B.,  70 
Powell,  G.  H.,  240,  259,  339 
Pratt,  D.  S.,  156,  1 66 
Pusch,  157 

Quercigh,  E.,  32,  70 

Regnauld,  75,  106 
Reichardt,  76,  106 
Rein,  J.  J.,  70 
Reischauer,  32 


Risso,  10 

Robertson,  T.  Brailsford,  91,  97,  106 

Rojahn,  W.,  26,  27,  28,  71 

Rolet,  109 

Romeo,  G.,  17,  22,  38,  59,  65,  67,  70 

Rosenberg-Hein,  Edgar,  78,  107 

Rother,  P.  B.,  60,  65,  71 

Roure-Bertrand  fils,  71,  178,  192, 196, 

240 

Roure,  Louis,  184,  189 
Rubke,  K.,  51,  72 
Ruddiman,  H.  D.,  259 
Rueff,  W.,  114 
Ruppin,  340,  342 
Russell,  G.  A.,  69 
Russow,  1 08 

Sachs,  J.  von,  10 

Sadtler,  S.  S.,  71 

Salamon,  54,  71 

Satie,  C.,  174,  189,  196,  199 

Saussure,  Theodore  de,  71 

Scarlata,  148 

Scarpa,  32 

Scheibler,  76,  106 

Schenk,  108 

Schimmel  &  Co.,  14,  16,  18,  19,  24,  25, 
26,  27,  29,  30,  32,  33,  36,  39,  40,  41, 
42,  43,  44,  45,  46,  50,  53,  54,  57,  59, 
60,  61,  63,  64,  65,  174,  177,  178,  179, 
180,  181,  182,  183,  193,  195, 196, 197, 
198 

Schleiden,  108 

Schmidt,  E.,  28,  71 

Schroeder,  Bruno,  108 

Schurz,  W.  L.,  312 

Schweitzer,  66 

Seaber,  54,  71 

Sebor,  1 06 

Sell,  25,  67 

Semmler,  F.  W.,  15,  71,  179,  189,  196, 
197,  199 

Shamel,  A.  D.,  246 

Sheehan,  E.  J.,  10,  13,  120 

Shepard,  H.  A.,  112 

Sherman,  D.  F.,  112 

Sifredi,  A.  V.,  165 

Singh,  92 

Singleton,  J.  N.  G.,  120 

Smith,  4,  6 

Snow,  Jenny  H.,  109 


AUTHOR  INDEX 


381 


Soden,  H.  von,  26,  27,  28,  71,  197,  199 

Soldaini,  A.,  29,  58,  65,  71 

Souberian,  15,  25,  42,  71,  106 

Spencer- Rollings,  J.,  288,  298 

Spica,  154,  1 66 

Spindler,  O.  von,  154,  166 

Spinella,  Commandatore,  20 

Stephan,  39,  69 

Stude,  1 06 

Sturge,  268 

Sucharipa,  92 

Swinson,  C.  R.,  258 

Swinton,  R.  S.,  27,  72 

Tanret,  160 

Tarr,  84,  90,  92 

Tartar,  84 

Taussure,  25 

Tempany,  H.  A.,  37,  71,  272,  306 

Theulier,  E.,  28,  71,  183,  189 

Thomas,  4,  6 

Thomas,  E.  L.  P.,  173 

Thompson,  James,  166 

Thorns,  H.,  1 6,  71 

Tiemann,  P.,  15,  58,  59,  71,  162,  178, 

179,  189,  196,  197,  199 
Tilden,  W.  A.,  17,  27,  28,  38,  71 
Tinkelpaugh,  C.  N.,  170 
Tobler,  H.,  147 

Tollens,  76,  80,  90,  104,  105,  106,  107 
Tolman,  L.  M.,  173 
Tolman,  Richard  C.,  91,  106 
Tschirch,  78,  89,  90,  108 
Tucholka,  W.,  27,  72 
Tuttin,  1 66 

Ullik,  106 

Ulpiani,  C.,  154,  166 

Umney,  J.  C.,  27,  31,  72,  192,  194,  196 

Unger,  108 

Valentin,  108 
Vanquelin,  106 
Van  Niessen,  107 
Vincent,  Camille,  184,  189 


Vogel,  1 08 
Vohl,  38 
VSlckel,  66 
Votecek,  106 

Walbaum,  H.,  15,  67,  72,  178,  179,  180 

181,  189,  193,  196,  199 
Walker,  247,  260 

Wallach,  Otto,  15,  25,  26,  30,  42,  48,  72 
Wallschlaeger,  F.  O.,  259,  260,  339 
Walther,  J.,  57,  72 
Warington,  153 
Warneford,  F.  H.  S.f  275 
Warrington,  292,  293,  306 
Watt,  276 

Watts,  Sir  Francis,  221,  285,  286,  306 
Webber,  H.  J.,  8 
Wehmer,  151,  152,  166 
Weil,  V.  M.,  272,  306 
Weisberg,  107 
Weiss,  John  M.,  166 
Welch,  P.  R.,  112,  114 
Widtsoe,  107 
Wiegand,  O.,  51,  72 
Wiessner,  108, 
Wigand,  108 

Wiley,  Harvey  W.,  31,  72 
Will,  162 

Will,  R.  T.f  5,  173,  260 
Wilson,  C.  P.,  247,  248,  260 
Wohl,  107 
Wright,  42,  72 
Wustenfeld,  164 

Young,  4,  6 

Zahorski,  151,  166 

Zeisel,  79,  80,  81,  84,  98 

Zeitschel,  C.,  69 

Zeitschel,  O.,  40, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 

184,  189,  197,  199 
Zelinsky,  49 
Zion,  John  R.,  165 
Zoller,  Harper  F.,  47,  72,  60,  162,  163, 

1 66 
Zurck,  Hans,  114 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Acetone  from  citrus  fruit,  146 

Acid  value  of  essential  oils:  bergamot, 
19,20;  Japanese  mandarin,  40;  lemon, 
22;  lime  leaves,  192,298-300,302;  Ne- 
roli Bigarade,  178,  181;  NeroliPortu- 
gal,  183;  petitgrain,  196 

Acids  in  essential  oils:  lemon,  27;  Neroli 
Bigarade,  180,  181.  See  Acid  value; 
Acetic  acid;  Citric  acid;  Palmitic  acid 

Adulterants  of  essential  oils:  bergamot 
in  Neroli,  182 ;  glyceryl  acetate  in  ber- 
gamot, 53;  lemon,  36;  lemon  in  petit- 
grain,  197;  non- volatile  esters  in  ber- 
gamot, 54;  orange  in  petitgrain,  197; 
petitgrain  in  Neroli,  182;  terpinyl  ace- 
tate in  bergamot,  50;  terpinyl  acetate 
in  petitgrain,  50;  triethyl  acetate  in 
bergamot,  52;  turpentine  in  oil  of 
lemons,  24,  29,  36 

Adulteration  of  essential  oils:  bergamot, 
17-20;  bergamot  leaves,  191;  Neroli 
Bigarade,  182;  sweet  orange,  43 

Africa,  Rhodesia  citrus  fruit  production, 
344.  See  Algeria,  British  South  Africa, 
Morocco,  Tunis 

Alcohols:  in  oil  of  bergamot,  15,  16.  See 
Alcohol  content;  Citronellol;  Fame- 
sol;  Geraniol;  Linalool;  Myristicol; 
Nerol;  Nerolidol;  Phenyl  ethyl  alco- 
hol; Terpineol 

Alcohol  content  of  oil  of  leaves  of  trifo- 
liate orange,  192 

Aldehydes  in  essential  oils:  Jamaican 
bitter  orange,  45;  Jamaican  sweet 
orange,  41 ;  grapefruit,  49;  lime  leaves, 
192;  sweet  orange,  142;  See  Citral; 
Citronellal;  Decylic  aldehyde;  Fur- 
furol;  Nonylic aldehyde;  Octylic alde- 
hyde 

Algeria:  citron  production  of,  344; 
lemon  exports,  244;  lemon  production 
of,  344;  mandarin  exports,  244;  Man- 
darin production  of,  344;  orange  ex- 
ports, 244;  orange  production  of,  344 

Amido  and  imino  deratives.  See  An- 
thranilic  acid  methyl  ester;  Indol; 
Methyl  anthranilic  acid  methyl  ester; 
Pyrrol 

Aqua  naphae,  174,  182 

Anthranilic  acid  methyl  ester  in 
essential  oils:  Neroli  Bigarade,  180, 


1 8 1 ;  Neroli  Portugal,  1 83 ;  petitgrain, 
197;  trifoliate  orange  leaves,  192 

Argentina:  lemons,  307;  oranges,  307; 
petitgrain  imports,  310 

Aurantiamarin,  160 

Australia:  bergamot  oil  imports,  368; 
lemons  imported,  359;  lemon  oil  im- 
ports, 368;  lemon  production  of,  346, 
347,  348;  Mandarin  production,  347; 
orange  oil  imports,  368;  orange 
production  of,  346,  347,  348 

Austria:  citrate  of  lime  imports,  362; 
citric  acid  imports,  362;  citron  pro- 
duction, 314;  lemon  production,  314; 
orange  production,  314 

Austria  Hungary,  lemon  oil  export, 
355 

Bahamas,  citrus  products  industry, 
261 

Belgium,  lemon  oil  exports,  355 
Bergamot.  See  Oil  of  Bergamot 
Bergaptene,  in  bergamot  oil,  14,  16 
Beverage,  grapefruit,  246 
Bisabolene  in  oil  of  lemon,  27 

Bitter  orange:  in  Paraguay,  308;  pro- 
duction of,  in  Japan,  340 

Blue  fluorescence  of  West  Indian  lime 
oil,  301,  302 

Brazil:  oranges,  307;  petitgrain  oil  im- 
ports, 310;  tangerines,  307 

British  Guiana:  citrate  of  lime,  312;  ex- 
ports of  citrate  of  lime,  354;  limes, 
312;  lime  juice,  312;  lime  oil,  312 

British  India,  lemon  oil  exports,  355 

British  South  Africa,  orange  exports, 
244;  orange  production,  344,  345 

British  West  Indies:  citrus  products  in- 
dustry, 261;  lemon  oil  exports,  355; 
lime  products,  219 

Cadinene  in  oil  of  lemon,  27 

California:  amount  of  products,  244, 
245;  citric  acid  manufacture,  248, 249, 
250-57 ;  citrus  products  industry,  257- 
59;  lemons  shipped  from,  357.  358; 
lemon  prices,  361;  lemon  production, 
214,  215;  lemon  supply,  i,  2;  location 


383 


384 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


of  product  industries,  244,  245; 
oranges  shipped  from,  357,  358; 
orange  vinegar  manufacture,  246 

Camphene  in  essential  oils:  bergamot, 
17;  lemon,  25;  Neroli  Bigarade,  178, 
181;  Neroli  Portugal,  183;  petitgrain, 
196;  sweet  orange  leaves,  192;  trifo- 
liate orange  leaves,  192 

Canada:  exports  of  citrate  of  lime,  354; 
lemons  imported,  359;  lemon  oil  ex- 
ports, 355 

Cedrat  oil.  See  Oil  of  citron 

Chili:  lemons,  307;  oranges,  307;  petit- 
grain  imports,  310 

China:  grapefruit  production,  341 ;  kum- 
quats  from,  340;  lemons,  imported, 
359;  lemon  oil  exports,  355;  lime  pro- 
duction, 341 ;  orange  extract  from, 
340;  orange  peel  from,  340 

Citral  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  20; 
citron,  46;  grapefruit,  49;  grapefruit 
leaves,  192;  Italian  bitter  orange,  44; 
Italian  limette  oil,  37 ;  lemon,  27 ; lime, 
298-300,  302;  mandarin,  39;  petit- 
grain  citronnier,  198;  sweet  orange 
leaves,  192;  West  Indian  limette,  37 

Citral  content  of  oil  of  lemon,  22,  23;  of 
terpeneless  oil  of  lemon,  23 

Citral  determination,  57;  Bruylant's 
method,  61;  Chace's  method,  62; 
Hiltner's  method,  64;  Kleber's  meth- 
od, 64;  Parry '&  method,  58;  Romeo's 
method,  59;  Rother's  method,  60; 
Sadtler's  method,  59;  Soldaini  and 
Berte's  method,  58 ;  Wai  ther's  method, 
57 

Citraptene.  See  Citroptene 

Citrate  of  lime:  Austrian  imports,  362; 
British  imports,  362;  British  Guiana 
exports,  312,  354;  Canadian  exports, 
354;  cost  of  production,  216,  217; 
equipment  for  making,  in  Sicily,  321 ; 
European  production,  232;  exported 
from  French  West  Indies,  302 ;  French 
exports,  354;  French  imports,  362; 
German  imports,  362;  imports  into 
the  United  States,  353,  354;  im- 
port duties,  364;  Italian  exports, 
349.  354.  362;  from  limes,  277,  289, 
293;  location  of  manufacturing  firms, 
242;  manufacture  in  Sicily,  325-26; 
of  Mexico,  259;  Mexican  exports,  354; 
Netherland  imports,  362;  Panama  ex- 
ports, 354;  price  of,  329;  Servia  im- 
ports 362;  Sicily  exports,  232;  Switz- 
erland, imports,  362;  West  Indian 
exports,  354;  United  Kingdom  ex- 


ports,  354;   United   States  imports, 
362 

Citric  acid:  amount  produced  in  the 
United  States,  215,  369;  analysis  in 
citrate  of  lime,  153;  analysis  in  juice 
and  factory  liquors,  154;  by  artificial 
synthesis,  153;  Austrian  imports,  362; 
British  imports,  362;  cost  of  produc- 
tion, 215,  217;  equipment  for  produc- 
tion of,  7;  factories  producing,  234; 
by  fermentation,  151;  French  im- 
ports, 233,  362;  French  exports,  233; 
German  imports,  233,  234,  362 ;  Ger- 
man exports,  233,  234;  identification, 
52;  imports  into  United  States,  243, 
352;  Italian  exports,  349,  362;  lime, 
218;  location  of  firms  manufacturing, 
242 ;  manufacture  in  California,  248- 
57;  manufacture  from  lemons,  146; 
manufacture  in  United  States,  242, 
243;  Netherland  imports,  362;  per- 
centage in  California  lemons,  248, 
249;  in  presence  of  other  acids,  156; 
price  of,  in  Australia,  366;  price  com- 
pared with  that  of  tartaric  acid,  232; 
price  of,  in  Italy,  366;  price  of,  in  New 
York,  366;  price  of,  in  the  United 
States,  366;  production  in  Europe, 
232,  233;  Sicilian  exports,  ^33;  Sici- 
lian imports,  233;  Servia  imports, 
362;  Switzerland  imports,  362;  table 
of  weight  equivalents,  297;  tariff  on, 
243,  244;  tests  for  purity  of,  157; 
United  States  imports,  362 

Citron:  Algerian  production,  344;  Aus- 
trian production,  314;  candied,  no; 
French  production,  314;  Grecian  pro- 
duction, 313;  in  Paraguay,  308;  Tunis 
production,  346 

Citron  oil.   See  Cedrat 
Citron  seed  oil,  168 

Citronellal  in  essential  oils:  bergamot, 
20;  in  oil  of  lemon,  26;  mandarin,  39; 
sweet  orange,  42 

Citroptene:  in  oil  of  citron,  46;  in  oil  of 
lemon,  28 

Citrus  fruits,  frost  resistance  of,  6 

Citrus  juice  production,  equipment  for, 
4 

Citrus  oils:  competition  with  United 
States,  239;  effect  of  duty  on,  239; 
value  of  imports  into  the  United 
States,  241 

Citrus  products:  condition  of  fruit  for, 
7,  8;  enumeration  of,  6,  7;  equipment 
for  factories,  7;  marketing,  227;  prep- 
aration of  fruit  for,  7,  8;  production 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


385 


in  Sicily  of,  3;  quality  and  quantity 
of,  7,  8;  selling  Sicilian,  227;  selling 
West  Indian,  227,  228 

Citrus  products  industries  (flow  sheet), 
5 

Citrus  products  industry:  basic  facts  of 
California,  213;  economics  of ,  2 1 3 ;  fu- 
ture of  American,  214;  in  Italy,  214; 
in  relation  to  fruit  industry,  3 

Citrus  waste  products,  3,  4 

Climate,  effect  of,  on  production  of  oil 
of  sweet  orange,  43,  44 

Color  of  essential  oils:  grapefruit,  46; 
Italian  limette,  37;  Japanese  mandar- 
in, 40;  mandarin  leaves,  193;  Neroli 
Portugal,  183;  petitgrain,  195;  sweet 
orange,  41;  trifoliate  orange  leaves, 
192;  West  Indian  limette,  36 

Cuba:  lemons  exported,  360;  lemon  oil 
exports,  355 

Culls:  cost  of  handling,  215,  216;  for 
marmalade,  245;  percentage  of,  213 

Cull  fruit:  amount  of,  in  Florida,  258; 
definition  of,  4,  248;  as  fertilizer,  172; 
price  of,  in  California,  245 

Curasao:  of  Dutch  West  Indies,  305;  of 
Haiti,  305 

Cymene  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Decylic  aldehyde  in  oil  of  Neroli  Biga- 
rade,  179,  181 

Denmark,  lemon  oil  exports,  355;  petit- 
grain  oil  imports,  310 

Dipentene  in  essential  oils:  citron,  46; 
grapefruit  leaves,  192;  Neroli  Biga- 
rade,  178,  181;  petitgrain,  196 

Distillation  of  oil  of  citron,  46;  oil  of 
lemon,  29 

Distillation  test  for  oil  of  lemon,  29 

Dominica:  citrus  products  industry, 
261;  limes  from,  in,  112;  lime  oil  ex- 
ports, 230 

Dominican  Republic,  lemon  oil  exports, 

355 
Dutch   West   Indies:   citrus  products, 

305;  curagao,  305;  orange  peel,  305 

Ecuador:  lemons,  307;  limes,  307; 
oranges,  307 

England,  petitgrain  oil  imports,  310. 
See  also  Great  Britain,  United  King- 
dom 


Essence  of  Neroli,  174 

Esters  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  15, 
18;  lemon,  27,  28;  non-volatile,  as 
adulterants  of  oil  of  bergamot,  54. 
See  Ester  value;  Geranyl  acetate;  Gly- 
ceryl  acetate;  Linalyl  acetate;  Methyl 
anthranilicacid  methyl  ester  (methyl 
anthranilate) ;  Neryl  acetate;  Phthal- 
lic  acid  esters;  Saponification  value; 
Terpinyl  acetate;  Triethyl  citrate 

Ester  content  of  essential  oils:  bergamot 
leaves,  191;  sweet  orange  leaves,  192; 
trifoliate  orange  leaves,  192 

Ester  value  of  essential  oils:  bergamot, 
19,  20;  grapefruit  leaves,  192;  Japan- 
ese mandarin,  40;  lemon,  22;  mandarin 
leaves,  193;  Neroli  Bigarade,  177, 
178,  181;  Neroli  Portugal,  183;  petit- 
grain,  196 


Farnesol  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  180, 
181 

Fermentation  products,  129 

Fermented  juice,  129 

Fertilizer  from  cull  citrus  fruit,  172 

Florida:  citrus  products  industry,  258; 
cull  fruit,  258 

Flowers,  products  from,  174.  See 
Grapefruit  flowers;  Orange  flowers 

France:  bergamot  oil  exports,  314;  ber- 
gamot oil  imports,  368;  citrate  of  lime 
imports,  362 ;  citric  acid  imports,  362 ; 
citric  acid  production,  233;  citron 
production,  314;  exports,  314;  ex- 
ports of  citrate  of  lime,  354;  lemon 
production,  348;  lemon  oil  exports, 
3r4»  355;  lemon  oil  imports,  368;  lime 
production,  348;  mandarin  produc- 
tion, 348;  Neroli  oil  exports,  314; 
orange  production,  348;  orange  oil 
imports,  368;  orange  oil  exports,  314; 
petitgrain  oil  exports,  314;  petit- 
grain  oil  imports,  310,  311 

French  West  Indies,  citrate  of  lime  of, 
302 

Frozen  fruits.  See  Grapefruit;  Lemons, 
frozen;  Oranges,  frozen 

Fruit:  canned,  113;  cull,  defined,  4;  as 
fertilizer,  172;  frozen,  see  Lemons, 
Oranges,  etc. 

Fruits  yielding  oil,  14 

Fruit  juice,  condensed,  120;  Gore  pro- 
cess, 125;  Gurber  method,  121 ;  Monti 
process,  121 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


Fruit  juices:  mixed,  120;  partially  fer- 
mented as  beverage,  140 

Fodder,  164 

Furfurol  in  oil  of  petitgrain,  196 


Geraniol  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  20; 
grapefruit,  49;  petitgrain,  197;  Neroli 
Bigarade,  179,  181 

Geranyl  acetate  in  essential  oils:  berga- 
mot, 20;  lemon,  27;  Neroli  Bigarade, 
181 

Germany:  citrate  of  lime  imports,  362; 
citric  acid  exports,  233,  234;  citric 
acid  imports,  233,  234,  362;  lemon  oil 
exports,  355;  petitgrain  oil  imports, 
310 

Glucosides,  bitter,  158;  aurantiamarin, 
1 60;  hesperidin,  158;  hesperitin,  158; 
isohesperidin,  160;  naringin,  160 

Glyceryl  acetate:  as  adulterant  of  oil  of 
bergamot,  53;  in  oil  of  bergamot,  19 

Grapefruit:  beverage  from,  246;  bot- 
tling juice,  6;  candied  peel,  process 
of,  246;  canned  in  Porto  Rico,  302-4; 
Chinese  production,  341;  citric  acid 
of,  6;  frozen  juice  of,  6;  marmalade,  6; 
peel  of,  6;  preserved  juice  of,  1 14, 1 19; 
naringin  from,  160;  no  hesperidin 
from,  158;  in  Porto  Rico,  302-3; 
United  States  production,  360;  vin- 
egar, 6.  See  Oil  of  grapefruit 

Grapefruit  flowers,  naringin  from,  162 

Grapefruit  oil.  See  also  Cedrat  oil;  Oil 
of  grapefruit 

Great  Britain:  bergamot  oil  imports, 
368;  citrate  of  lime  imports,  362;  cit- 
ric acid  imports,  362;  lemon  oil  im- 
ports, 368;  orange  oil  imports,  368 

Greece:  citron  production,  313;  lemon 
production,  313;  mandarin  produc- 
tion, 313;  orange  production,  313 


Haiti:  citrus  products  of,  304-5 ;  curacao 
of,  305;  orange  peel  of,  305 

Hesperidin,  1 58 ;  from  lemons,  158;  from 
mandarins,  I58;microchemistry,  159; 
preparation  of,  159;  properties  of,  159 

Hesperitin,  158 

Hong  Kong,  lemon  oil  exports,  055 

Hydrocarbon  content :  determination  of, 
in  oil  of  lemon,  33 ;  relative  of,  to  cit- 
ral  content,  35.  See  Terpenes 


Import  duties  on  citric  acid  in  the  prin- 
cipal countries,  365 

Indol  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  181 

Italy:  bergamot  oil  exports,  367,  368; 
bergamot  oil  production,  314;  citrate 
of  lime  exports,  349,  354,  362;  citric 
acid  exports,  349,  362;  citrus  oil  ex- 
ports, 349;  lemon  exports,  337,  338, 
360;  lemon  oil  exports,  355,  363,  367, 
368;  mandarin  production,  337;  man- 
darin oil  exports,  367 ;  orange  produc- 
tion, 337;  orange  oil  exports,  367,  368; 
petitgrain  oil  imports,  310 

Isohesperidin,  160 

Jamaica:  citrus  products  industry,  261; 
orange  oil,  262-67 

Jamaican  bitter  orange  oil,  267 

Japan:  bitter  orange  production,  340; 
kumquat  production,  340;  lemon  pro- 
duction, 340;  lemon  oil  exports,  355; 
mandarin  exports,  340;  navel  orange 
production,  340;  number  of  orange 
trees  in,  340;  number  of  pounds  of 
oranges  produced,  340 ;  tangerine  pro- 
duction, 340 

Jasmonein  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  179, 
181 

Jelly,  formation  from  pectin,  89 

Jelly  manufacture,  98;  acid  in,  102; 
aroma  in,  100;  clarification  in,  99; 
flavor  changes  in,  100;  sugar  in,  101; 
yields,  98 

Juices,  preserved  and  condensed,  114; 
See  Lemon  juice,  Orange  juice,  etc. 

Ketones.  See  Jasmone,  Methylhepte- 
none 

Kumquats:  Chinese  production,  340; 
glace~d,  no;  Japanese  production,  340 

Leaves,  products  from,  190.   See  Oils 

Leeward  Islands,  citrus  products  indus- 
try, 261.  See  also  Dominica 

Lemons:  Algerian  exports,  244;  Alger- 
ian production,  344;  in  Argentina, 
307 ;  Australian  production,  346,  347, 
348;  Austrian  imports,  359;  Austrian 
production,  314;  California  produc- 
tion, 214,  215;  California  shipments, 
357.  358;  Canadian  imports,  359; 
in  Chili,  307;  Chinese  imports,  359; 
citric  acid  in,  218,248,  249;  compo- 
sition of,  220,221  ;  Cuban  exports,  360; 
in  Ecuador,  307 ;  exports  from  Italy  by 
countries,  336-37;  French,  348;  Gre- 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


387 


cian  production,  313;  hesperidinfrom, 
158;  international  trade,  213;  Italian 
exports,  360;  New  Zealand  imports, 
359;  New  Zealand  production,  346, 
347,  348;  in  Paraguay,  308;  Philip- 
pine imports,  359;  prices,  California, 
361 ;  prices,  Sicily,  361 ;  production  of, 
in  Japan,  340;  quantity  produced  in 
Italy,  337;  Russian  imports,  359; 
Spanish  production,  314,  348;  Sicilian 
harvesting,  224;  Sicilian  production, 
economics  of,  3;  Sicilian  yields  and 
profits,  224;  Sicilian  yields  and  profits 
compared  with  lime,  225,  226;  Tunis 
production,  346;  United  States  im- 
ports, i,  2,  360,  361;  United  States 
exports,  359;  United  States  produc- 
tion, 360;  Uruguay  production,  312 

Lemons,  frozen:  citric  acid  yield  from, 
4;  juice  of,  6;  peel  of,  6;  pulp  of,  6;  oil 
yield  from,  6;  utility  of,  4.  See  Oil  of 
lemon 

Lemon  camphor.   See  Citroptene 

Lemon  consumption  in  the  United 
States,  2 

Lemon  juice:  imports  into  the  United 
States,  356;  production  in  Sicily,  320- 
21 ;  preserved,  114 

Lemon  oil,  condition  of  fruit  in  relation 
to,  7.  See  Oil  of  lemon 

Lemon  peel:  market  for,  245;  produc- 
tion in  Sicily,  320;  United  States  im- 
ports, 112 

Lemon  seed  oil,  167,  168 
Lemon  wood,  uses  for,  198 
Limene  in  oil  of  bergamot,  17 

Limes:  British  Guiana,  312;  Chinese 
production,  341 ;  citrate  of  lime  from, 
277,  289,  293;  citric  acid  of,  218;  com- 
position of,  220,  221 ;  cultivation,  267; 
in  Ecuador,  307;  French,  348;  har- 
vesting, 223;  hesperidin  from,  158, 
in  Paraguay,  308;  pests  and  diseases; 
222;  pickled,  imports  in  United 
States,  in;  pickling  process  of, 
112;  in  St.  Lucia,  269;  trade,  224; 
time  of  maturity,  220;  yields,  223; 
yields  and  profits  compared  with 
lemon,  225,  226.  See  Oil  of  limes 

Lime  juice:  British  Guiana,  312;  con- 
centration by  freezing,  287,  288;  con- 
centration by  heat,  277,  279;  for  cor- 
dials and  flavoring,  275;  discoloration, 
275;  extraction,  271 ;  iron  in,  276;  pre- 
served, 114;  salability,  293;  United 
States  imports,  356 

Lime  oil.   See  Oil  of  limes 


Lime  products:  British  West  Indian 
amount,  219;  Central  American,  219; 
Mexican,  219;  Porto  Rican,  219 

Lime  seed  oil,  168 

Limettin:  in  Italian  limette  oil,  37,  38; 
in  West  Indian  limette  oil,  37,  302 

Limonene  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  15, 
20;  citron,  46;  grapefruit,  48;  imma- 
ture oranges,  198;  Italian  bitter 
orange,  44;  Italian  limette,  37,  38; 
lemon,  26;  petitgrain,  196;  sweet 
orange,  43;  trifoliate  orange  leaves, 
192;  West  Indian  lime  oil,  299 

Linalool  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  15, 
16;  grapefruit,  49 ;  grapefruit  leaves, 
192;  Italian  limette,  37,  38;  lime  flow- 
ers, 1 88;  mandarin,  39;  Neroli  Biga- 
rade, 179,  181;  Neroli  Portugal,  183; 
petitgrain,  197;  sweet  orange  leaves, 
192;  trifoliate  orange  leaves,  192 

Linalyl  acetate  in  essential  oils:  berga- 
mot, 15,  16,  17,  19,  20;  Italian  limette 
37,  38;  lemon,  27;  Neroli  Bigarade, 
179,  181;  petitgrain,  195;  trifoliate 
orange  leaves,  192;  West  Indian  li- 
mette, 37 

Mandarin:  Algerian  production,  344; 
Algerian  exports,  244 ;  Australian  pro- 
duction, 347;  hesperidin  from,  158; 
Japanese  exports,  340;  French,  348; 
Grecian  production,  313;  in  Para- 
guay, 308 ;  quantity  produced  in  Italy, 
337;  Sicilian  exports,  336.  See  Oil  of 
mandarin 

Mandarin  oil.  See  Oil  of  mandarin 

Marmalade:  equipment  for  production 
of,  7;  "Dundee,"  170;  manufacture 
of,  170;  orange,  245;  of  Porto  Rico, 
304 

Methyl  anthranilatein  essential  oils:  ber- 
gamot leaves,  191;  lime  flowers,  188; 
mandarins,  38,  39;  Neroli  Bigarade, 
178;  West  Indian  limette,  137;  West 
Indian  lime  oil,  299,  302.  See  Methyl 
anthranilic  acid  methyl  ester 

Methyl  anthranilic  acid  methyl  ester 
in  essential  oils:  Japanese  mandarin, 
40,  41;  mandarin,  39,  40;  mandarin 
leaves,  193 

Methyl  ester  of  anthranilic  acid  in  es- 
sential oils:  lemon,  28;  sweet  orange, 
42 

Methylheptenone  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Mexico:  citrate  of  lime,  259;  citrate  of 
lime  exports,  354;  citrus  products  in- 


388 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


dustry,  259;  lemon  oil  exports,  355; 
lime  oil,  259;  lime  products,  219 

Morocco:  oil  of  Neroli  of,  345,  346; 
orange  blossom  industry,  345,  346 

Myristicol  in  oil  of  sweet  orange,  42 

Naringin,  160;  found  only  in  grapefruit, 
162 

Navel  oranges,  production  of,  in  Japan, 

340 
Nerol  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  16; 

Neroli  Bigarade,  179;  petitgrain,  197 

Neroli,  price  of,  70 

Neroli  oil,  174.  See  Oil  of  Neroli 

Nerolidol  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  180, 
181 

Neryl  acetate  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade, 
181 

Netherlands:  citrate  of  lime  imports, 
362;  citric  acid  imports,  362;  lemon 
oil  exports,  355 ;  petitgrain  oil  imports, 
310 

New  Zealand:  lemons  imported,  359; 
lemon  production,  346,  347,  348; 
orange  production,  346,  347,  348 

Nonylic  aldehyde  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Octylene  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  17; 
lemon,  17,  25 

Octylic  aldehydes  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Odor  of  essential  oils:  bergamot  due  to 
linalool  acetate,  15;  grapefruit,  46; 
Italian  bitter  orange,  44;  Italian  li- 
mette,  37;  Japanese  mandarin,  40; 
mandarin,  38;  Neroli  Portugal,  183; 
Papeda  leaves,  192;  petitgrain,  195; 
sweet  orange  oil,  41 ;  West  Indian  li- 
mette,  37 

Oil,  methods  for  obtaining,  10,  II 

Oil  of  bergamot,  14;  adulteration  of,  17- 
20;  adulterants  of,  50,  52,  53,  54;  as 
adulterant  of  oil  of  Neroli,  182;  as  ad- 
ulterant of  oil  of  petitgrain,  191 ;  Aus- 
tralian imports,  368;  British  imports, 
368;  change  during  ripening,  15,  16; 
chemical  composition  of,  15;  compar- 
ison with  Italian  limette  oil,  37;  ester 
content  of,  18;  examination  of,  17; 
evaporation  residue  of,  20;  French 
imports,  314,  368;  imports  into  the 
United  States,  242,  373;  Italian  ex- 
ports, 367,  368;  methods  of  produc- 
tion of,  20;  prices,  238,  371,  372;  pro- 
duction in  Italy,  314;  properties  of, 


114;  origin  and  production  of,  14; 
Russian  imports,  368;  synthetic,  price 
of,  369;  Switzerland  imports,  368; 
United  States  imports,  368 

Oil  of  bergamot  leaves,  191 

Oil  of  bitter  orange,  44;  Italian,  44;  Ja- 
maican, 44;  properties,  44;  taste  of 
compared  with  oU  of  sweet  orange,  44, 
West  Indian,  45.  See  Oil  of  immature 
orange;  Oil  of  orange;  Oil  of  bitter 
orange  leaves;  Oil  of  petitgrain 

Oil  of  citron:  adulteration  of,  45;  com- 
position of,  46;  origin  of,  45;  produc- 
tion of,  45;  properties  of,  46;  sediment 
in,  46;  United  States  imports,  242, 
371 

Oil  of  Citrus  trifoliate,  leaves,  192 

Oil  of  grapefruit:  composition  of,  46; 
origin  of,  46;  properties  of,  46 

Oil  of  grapefruit  leaves,  192 
Oil  of  Italian  limette,  37 

Oil  of  lemon:  adulterants,  29,  36; 
amount  produced  in  the  United  States, 
241 ;  Austrian  exports,  355 ;  Australian 
imports,  368;  Belgian  exports,  355; 
British  imports,  368;  British  Indian 
exports,  355;  Canadian  exports,  355; 
change  during  ripening,  22;  Chinese 
exports,  355;  compared  with  lime  oil, 
218;  composition  of ,  24;  constants  of 
California  and  Spanish,  24;  constit- 
uents soluble  in  alcohol,  31;  cost  of 
production,  216,  217;  Cuban  exports, 
355;  Danish  exports,  355;  Dominican 
Republic  exports,  355;  difference  in 
odor  between  Palermo  and  Messina 
oils,  27;  distillation  test  for,  29;  effect 
of  air,  distillation,  light,  storage  on, 
23;  examination  of,  28;  French  ex- 
ports, 314,  355;  French  imports,  368; 
German  exports,  355;  hydrocarbon 
determination  in,  33;  Hong  Kong  ex- 
ports, 355;  Italian  exports,  355,  363, 
367,  368;  Japanese  exports,  355,  mar- 
ket characters,  230;  Mexican  exports, 
355;  Netherland  exports,  355;  oxygen 
content  of,  24;  prices,  238,  329; 
properties  of,  21,  24;  properties 
of  terpeneless,  23;  Russian  im- 
ports, 368;  sediment  in,  23;  Span- 
ish exports,  355;  Sicilian,  324,  325; 
Sicilian  exports,  336;  Sicilian  pro- 
duction, 320,  321,  323;  Switzerland 
imports,  368;  Switzerland  exports, 
355;  terpeneless,  66;  Turkish  ex- 
ports, 355;  United  Kingdom  ex- 
ports, 355;  United  States  imports, 
241,  349,  355,  368;  viscosity  deter- 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


389 


initiation  of,   32;   wages  of   Sicilian 
workers,  322,  327 

Oil  of  lemon  leaves.  See  Oil  of  petitgrain 
citronnier 

Oil  of  lime,  36;  acid  value,  298,  299; 
amount  exported  from  Dominica,23O; 
British  Guiana,  312;  blue  fluores- 
cence of,  301,  302;  citral  content, 
298-300,  302;  compared  with  lemon 
oil,  218;  imports  into  the  United 
States,  242,  373;  limettin  of,  302; 
limonene  in,  299;  market  charac- 
ters, 230;  methyl  anthranilate  in, 
299i  3°2;  °f  Mexico,  259;  optical 
rotation,  298,  299;  prices,  238,  369; 
refractive  index,  298-300;  specific 
gravity,  298,  299;  West  Indian,  296- 
300 

Oil  of  lime  leaves,  192 

Oil  of  limette:  Italian,  37;  West  Indian, 

36 
Oil  of  mandarin,  38;  composition  of,  39; 

Japanese,    40;    Japanese    compared 

with  Italian,  40;  Italian  exports,  367; 

origin  of,  38;  properties  of,  38 

Oil  of  mandarin  leaves,  193 

Oil  of  Neroli:  French  exports,  314;  his- 
tory of,  174;  imports  into  the 
United  States,  242;  Morocco  pro- 
duction, 345,  346;  oil  of  petit- 
grain  as  adulterant,  182;  prices, 
238,  374;  synthetic,  price  of,  374 

Oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  176;  composition 
of,  178;  oil  of  bergamot  as  adulterant, 
182;  properties  of,  176 

Oil  of  Neroli  Portugal,  182;  Algerian, 
183;  composition  of ,  183;  occurrence 
of,  183;  properties  of,  182;  Spanish, 
183 

Oil  of  orange:  Australian  imports,  368; 
British  imports,  368;  French  imports, 
368;  French  exports,  314;  immature, 
198;  imports  into  the  United  States, 
351 ;  Italian  exports,  367,  368;  Jamai- 
can, 262-67;  prices,  238,  370-71 ;  Rus- 
sian imports,  368;  Sicilian  production, 
231 ;  Switzerland  imports,  368;United 
States  imports,  241,  368;  United 
States  production,  241;  use  of,  231; 
West  Indian  production,  231 

Oil  of  orange  flowers:  adulterated  with 
oil  of  bergamot  leaves,  191;  from  fall 
flowers  similar  to  oil  from  old  bran- 
ches, 175;  history  of,  174;  production 
of,  174;  from  spring  flowers  similar  to 
oil  from  young  branches,  175;  syn- 
thetic, 174;  United  States  imports, 
350;  use  of,  174.  See  Oil  of  Neroli 


Oil  of  Papeda  leaves,  192 

Oil  of  petitgrain:  adulteration  and  ex- 
amination of,  197;  adulterants,  50, 
191;  as  adulterant  of  oil  of  Neroli,  182; 
Argentina  imports,  310;  Brazil 
imports,  310;  Chili  imports,  310; 
composition  of,  1 96 ;  Danish  im- 
ports, 310;  English  imports,  310; 
French  imports,  310,  311;  French  ex- 
ports, 314;  German  imports,  310; 
Italian  imports,  310;  Netherlands  im- 
ports, 310;  origin  and  production  of, 
195;  Paraguay  exports,  310,  31 1 ;  Par- 
aguay production,  308, 309, 310;  prop- 
erties of,  195;  source  of,  195;  Span- 
ish imports,  310,  311;  taste  of,  195; 
United  States  imports,  310;  Uruguay 
imports,  310 

Oil  of  petitgrain  citronnier,  198 

Oil  of  petitgrain  Portugal.  See  Oil  of 
sweet  orange  leaves 

Oil  of  sweet  orange,  41 ;  change  in  stor- 
age, 41;  composition  of,  42;  examina- 
tion of,  43;  Jamaican,  44;  properties 
of,  41 ;  sediment  in,  41 ;  source  of,  41 ; 
taste  of,  41.  See  Oil  of  orange 

Oil  of  sweet  orange  leaves,  192 

Oil  of  West  Indian  bitter  orange  oil, 
production  of,  45 

Oil  of  West  Indian  limette,  36 
Oil  from  seeds,  167 

Oil  from  the  stems,  195.  See  Oil  of  petit- 
grain 

Oil  cells:  morphology  of ,  10;  position  in 
plant,  9;  shape  in  relation  to  quantity 
of  juice,  10 

Oil  production:  equipment  for,  7;  ex- 
pression by  hand,  11,  12;  expression 
by  machine,  12;  extraction  by  dis- 
placement, 13;  extraction  by  solvents, 
13;  by  distillation,  n 

Oil,  terpeneless,  66 

Oils,  esters  in  citric  acid,  51;  glyceryl 
acetate,  53;  non- volatile,  54;  terpinyl 
acetate,  50 

Oils:  formation  in  leaves,  193;  terpene 
content  of  petioles  and  leaves,  193 

Oleoresin  of  oil  of  sweet  orange,  42 

Optical  rotation  of  essential  oils:  berga- 
mot, 14,  16,  17,  19,  20;  bergamot 
leaves,  191;  bitter  orange,  44;  citron, 
46;  Dominican  sweet  orange,  41,  42; 
grapefruit,  46;  grapefruit  leaves,  192; 
immature  orange,  198;  Italian  bitter 
orange,  44;  Italian  limette,  37;  Jamai- 


390 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


can  bitter  orange,  45;  Jamaican 
sweet  orange,  41,  44;  Japanese  man- 
darin, 40;  lemon,  22;  lime,  298,  299; 
lime  flowers,  188;  lime  leaves,  192; 
mandarins,  38,  39;  mandarin  leaves, 
193;  Neroli  Bigarade,  177, 178;  Neroli 
Portugal,  182,  183;  Papeda  leaves, 
192;  petitgrain,  195,  196;  sweet  or- 
ange, 41;  sweet  orange  leaves,  192; 
trifoliate  orange  leaves,  192;  terpene- 
less  bergamot,  67;  terpeneless  lemon, 
23,67;  terpeneless  lime,  67;  terpeneless 
orange,  67;  West  Indian  limette  oil, 
37 

Oranges:  Algerian  exports,  244;  Alger- 
ian production,  344;  in  Argentina, 
307;  aurantiamarin  from,  160;  Aus- 
tralian production,  346,  347,  348; 
Austrian  production,  314;  in  Brazil, 
307;  British  South  African  exports, 
244;  British  South  African  produc- 
tion, 344,  345;  California  shipment, 
357.  358.;  m  Chili,  307;  citric  acid 
from,  6;  in  Ecuador,  307;  French,  348, 
Grecian  production,  313;  hesperidin 
from,  158;  isohesperidin  from,  160; 
Italian  production,  337;  Japanese 
production,  340;  New  Zealand  pro- 
duction, 346,  347,  348;  in  Porto  Rico, 
302-3;  Sicilian  exports,  336;  Sicilian 
production,  316;  Spanish  production, 
313-14,  348;  Syrian  production,  341, 
342;  Tunis  production,  346;  United 
States  production,  360;  Uruguay  pro- 
duction, 312 

Oranges,  frozen:  flowers  of,  6;  oil  of,  6; 
pectin  of,  6;  peel  of,  6;  pulp  of,  6; 
sugar  content  of,  6;  vinegar  from,  6 

Orange  blossom  industry,  Morocco,  345, 

346 
Orange   extract,    Chinese    production, 

340 

Orange  flowers:  oil,  174;  perfume,  man- 
ufacture of,  183;  perfume,  ready 
made  in  plant,  184;  perfume,  use  of, 
1 88;  wax  of,  186 

Orange  juice:  filtration  of,  117;  pas- 
teurization of,  118;  preserved,  114; 
yields  and  composition,  115;  United 
States  imports,  356 

Orange  marmalade:  relation  of  maturity 
of  fruit  to,  7,  8;  use  of  culls  for,  245 

Orange  oil.     See  Oil  of  orange 

Orange  peel:  Chinese  production,  340; 
demand  for,  246;  of  Dutch  West  In- 
dies, 305;  of  Haiti,  302;  United  States 
imports,  112 

Orange  seed  oil,  167,  168 


Orange  vinegar:  after  treatment,  145; 
apparatus  for,  141 ;  compared  with 
apple  vinegar,  235;  composition  of, 
237;  cost  of  manufacture,  234;  dis- 
eases of ,  145;  domestic  method,  141; 
equipment,  234;  fermentation,  140; 
German  method,  140;  manufacture  in 
California,  246;  nature  and  origin  of, 
140;  Pasteur  method,  142;  starters 
and  pure  cultures,  141;  rotating  bar- 
rel method,  144 

Orange  wine :  analysis  of ,  1 38 ;  sparkling, 

139 
Orange  wood,  uses  for,  198 

Palmitic  acid  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade, 
181 

Panama,  exports  of  citrate  of  lime,  354 
Paper,  164 

Paraffin  in  essential  oils:  Neroli  Biga- 
rade, 176,  1 80,  181,  182;  trifoliate 
orange,  192 

Paraguay:  bitter  orange,  308;  citron  in, 
308;  history  of  citrus  industry,  307-9; 
lemons  in,  308;  limes  in,  308;  mandar- 
ins in,  308 ;  oranges  in,  307 ;  petitgrain 
oil  exports,  310,  311;  petitgrain  oil 
production,  308-10;  sweet  orange,  308 

Parapectin,  definition  of,  78 
Pectase,  action  of,  85 

Pectic  acid,  sources  and  properties,  82, 
88 

Pectin,  73;  composition  of,  80;  experi- 
mental progress,  73 ;  microchemical 
reactions,  77;  methods  for  estimation 
of,  97 ;  physical  behavior,  83 ;  produc- 
tion and  composition  of  orange,  81; 
production  and  purification,  79,  93; 
uses,  93;  sources  and  properties,  82 

Pectin  extraction,  93;  Caldwell's 
method,  93 

Pectose,  definition  of,  78 

Peel,  245,  246;  dried,  equipment  for  pro- 
duction of,  7.  See  Grapefruit,  Lemon 
peel,  Orange  peel 

Petitgrain  oil.   See  Oil  of  petitgrain 
Phellandrene  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Phenols  in  oil  of  Neroli  Bigarade,  180, 
181 

Phenyl  acetonitrile  in  aquae  naphae, 
182 

Phenyl  ethyl  alcohol  in  oil  of  Neroli 
Bigarade,  179 


SUBJECT  INDEX 


Philippine  Islands,  lemons  imported,  359 

Phthallic  acid  esters  in  oil  of  bergamot, 
19 

Pinene  in  essential  oils:  absent  in  sweet 
orange,  42;  bergamot,  17,  20;  grape- 
fruit, 48;  Italian  bitter  orange,  44; 
lemon,  25;  Neroli  Bigarade,  178,  181; 
petitgrain,  196 

Pomelo.   See  Grapefruit 

Porto  Rico:  canned  grapefruit  of,  302-4; 
citrus  products  of,  302-4;  coffee  pro- 
duction versus  citrus,  304;  grapefruit 
production,  302-3;  lime  products, 
219;  marmalade  of,  304;  orange  pro- 
duction, 302-3 

Pseudocumene  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 
Products  from  the  stems,  195 

Protopectin,  78;  definition  of ,  78;  source 
and  properties,  82 

Pulp:  as  fodder,  164;  for  paper,  164; 
uses  for,  113 

Pyrrol  in  essential  oils:  from  immature 
oranges,  198;  Neroli  Bigarade,  181; 
petitgrain,  196 

Refractive  index  of  essential  oils:  grape- 
fruit, 46 ;  grapefruit  leaves,  1 92 ;  lemon, 
22;  lime,  298-300;  Neroli  Biga- 
rade, 178;  Neroli  Portugal,  183; 
Papeda  leaves,  192;  of  terpeneless 
lemon  oil,  23 

Residue,  evaporation  of  oil  of  lemon,  22 

Rind,  use  of,  no 

Rhodesia,  citrus  production,  344 

Rubber  manufacture,  use  of  citrus  seed 
oils  in,  1 68 

Russia:  bergamot  oil  imports,  368; 
lemons  imported,  359;  lemon  oil  im- 
ports, 368;  orange  oil  imports,  368 

St.  Lucia:  citrus  products  industry, 
262;  limes  in,  269 

Saponification  number  of  essential  oils: 
bergamot,  20;  mandarin  leaves,  193; 
Neroli  Bigarade,  177 

Saponification  value  of  essential  oils: 
Papeda  leaves,  192;  petitgrain,  195; 
petitgrain  citronnier,  198 

Seeds,  products  from,  167 
Seed  oil,  uses  for,i68 

Seryia:  citrate  of  lime  imports,  362; 
citric  acid  imports,  362 


Sesquiterpenes.  See  Terpenes 

Sicily:  citrate  of  lime  equipment,  321; 
citrate  of  lime  exports,  232;  citrate  of 
lime  production,  325-26;  citric  acid 
production,  233;  citrus  acreage,  336; 
comparison  of  sulphur  and  citrate  in- 
dustries, 335-36;  cost  of  citrus  prod- 
uct production,  327;  equipment  of 
factories,  32 1 ;  geographic  distribution 
of  citrus  products  industry,  314-20; 
law  regarding  citrus  products,  329-35 ; 
lemon  cultivation,  224;  lemon  exports, 
336;  lemon  harvesting,  224;  lemon 
juice,  320-21;  lemon  oil,  machine 
made,  325;  lemon  oil  distilled,  324; 
lemon  oil  production,  320,  321,  323; 
lemon  peel  production,  320;  lemon 
prices,  361 ;  lemon  yields  and  profits, 
224;  lemon  yields  and  profits  com- 
pared with  lime,  225,  226;  mandarin 
exports,  336;  manufacture  of  citrus 
products,  320;  orange  exports,  336; 
orange  production,  316;  orange  oil 
production,  231 ;  selling  products,  227; 
speculationin  citrus  products,  327-28, 
334-35;  value  of  citrus  products  of , 
219;  wages,  322,  327 

Soap:  from  citrus  seed  oil,  168;  orange 
flower  perfume  in,  188 

Solubility  of  essential  oils:  bergamot 
leaves,  191;  Italian  bitter  orange,  44; 
lemon,  22;  Japanese  mandarin,  40; 
mandarin  leaves,  193;  Neroli  Biga- 
rade, 176,  178;  Neroli  Portugal,  183; 
petitgrain,  195, 196;  terpeneless  berga- 
mot, 67;  terpeneless,  orange  67 

Soporific  substance  from  leaves,  190 

Spain:  lemon  production,  314,  348; 
lemon  oil  exports,  355 ;  orange  produc- 
tion, 313-24,  348;  petitgrain  oil  im- 
ports, 310,  311 

Specific  gravity  of  essential  oils:  berga- 
mot, 14,  16,  17,  18,  19,  20;  bergamot 
leaves,  191;  bitter  orange,  44;  citron, 
46;  Dominican  sweet  orange,  41; 
grapefruit,  46;  grapefruit  leaves,  192; 
Italian  bitter  orange,  44;  Italian  li- 
mette,  37 ;  Jamaican  bitter  orange,  45 ; 
Jamaican  sweet  orange,  41,  44;  Jap- 
anese mandarin,  40;  lemon  22,  23; 
lime,  298,  299;  lime  flowers,  188;  lime 
leaves,  192;  mandarins,  38,  39;  man- 
darin leaves,  193;  Neroli  Bigarade, 
176,  177;  Neroli  Portugal,  183;  Pape- 
da leaves,  192;  petitgrain,  196,  197; 
petitgrain  citronnier,  198 ;  sweet 
orange,  41;  sweet  orange  leaves,  192; 
terpeneless  bergamot,  67;  terpene- 
less lemon  oil,  23,  67;  terpeneless 


392 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 


lime  oil,  67;  terpeneless  orange  oil, 
67;  trifoliate  orange  leaves,  192; 
West  Indian  limette,  37 

Stearoptene  in  oil  of  sweet  orange,  42 
Stem,  products  from,  195.  See  Petitgrain 

Sugar  content  of  fruit  in  relation  to 
maturity,  8 

Sweet  orange  in  Paraguay,  308 

Switzerland:  bergamot  oil  imports,  368; 
citric  acid  imports,  362;  lemon  oil  ex- 
ports, 355;  citrate  of  lime  imports, 
362;  lemon  oil  imports,  368;  orange 
oil  imports,  368 

Syria:  orange  acreage  of,  342;  Jaffa 
orange  production,  341-43;  orange 
production,  341 

Tangerines:  in  Brazil,  307;  production 
of,  in  Japan,  340 

Terpenes  and  sesquiterpenes:  formed  in 
green  parts  of  plants,  176;  in  oil  of 
Neroli  Portugal,  183.  See  Bergap- 
tene;  Bisabolene;  Cadinene;  Cam- 
phene;  Citropene;  Cymene;  Dipen- 
tene;  Limonene;  Phellandrene;  Pi- 
nene;  Pseudecumene;  Octylene; 
Stearoptene;  Terpinene 

Terpene  properties  of  oil  of  sweet  orange 
42 

Terpeneless  oil  of  lemon,  66 
Terpinene  in  oil  of  lemon,  26 

Terpineol  in  essential  oils:  bergamot,  16; 
lemon,  27;  Neroli  Bigarade,  179,  181; 
petitgrain,  197 

Terpinyl  acetate  in  essential  oils:  as 
adulterant  in  bergamot,  50;  as  adul- 
terant in  petitgrain,  bergamot,  16 

Triethyl  citrate  as  adulterant  of  oil  of 
bergamot,  52 

Trinidad  and  Tobago,  citrus  products 
industry,  262 

Tunis:  citron  production,  346;  lemon 
production,  346;  orange  production, 
346 


Turkey,  lemon  oil  exports,  355 

Turpentine  oil:  adulterant  of  oil  of 
lemon,  24,  29,  36;  detection  in  oil  of 
sweet  orange,  43 

United  Kingdom:  exports  of  citrate  of 
lime,  354;  lemon  oil  exports,  355 

United  States:  bergamot  oil  imports, 
242,  368,  373;  cedrat  oil  imports,  242, 
371 ;  citrate  of  lime  imports,  243,  353, 
354,  362;  citrate  of  lime  tariff,  243, 
244;  citric  acid  imports,  243,  352,  362 ; 
citric  acid  production,  215,  242,  243, 
369;  citric  acid  tariff,  243,  244;  citrus 
oil  competition,  239;  grapefruit  pro- 
duction in,  360;  imports  from  France, 
314;  imports  of  citrus  oil,  value  of, 
241 ;  import  duties  on  citrus  products, 
363,  365;  lemons  imported,  360,  361; 
lemons  exported,  359;  lemons  pro- 
duced in,  360;  lemon  juice  imports, 
356;  lemon  oil  imports,  241,  349,  355, 
368;  lemon  oil  production,  241;  lime 
juice  imports,  356;  lime  oil  imports, 
242,  373;  Neroli  oil  imports,  242,  350; 
orange  juice  imports,  356;  orange  oil 
imports,  351,  368;  orange  production, 
360;  petitgrain  oil  imports,  310 

Uruguay:  lemon  production,  312;  or- 
ange production,  312;  petitgrain  oil 
imports,  310 

Vinegar.  See  Grapefruit,  Orange  vine- 
gar 

West  Indies:  citrate  of  lime  exports,  354; 
citrus  products,  defects  in,  229;  lime 
oil,  296;  orange  oil  production,  231; 
selling  products,  227,  228.  See  also 
British  West  Indies,  Dutch  West  In- 
dies, French  Indies 

West  Indies,  limes  from,  in 
Wine.   See  Orange  wine 

Wood:  lemon,  uses  for,  198 ;  orange,  uses 
for,  198 

Yield  of  essential  oils:  bergamot  leaves, 
191 ;  grapefruit  leaves,  192;  immature 
oranges,  198;  mandarin  leaves,  193 


I    I-/ 

V.  Cz 

FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 

PUBLICATION  245 
BOTANICAL  SERIES  VOL.  VI,  No.  2 


CITRUS  PRODUCTS 

PART  II 

BY 

JAMES  B.  McNAiR 

Assistant  Curator  of  Economic  Botany     -riir     »  lUDABY    OF    THE 

19; 


UNIVERSITY  OF   ILLINOIS 


B.  E.  DAHLGREN 

Acting  Curator,  Department  of  Botany 
EDITOR 


CHICAGO,  U.  S.  A. 

November  14,  1927 


FIELD  MUSEUM  OF  NATURAL  HISTORY 
PUBLICATIONS 


BOTANICAL  SERIES 

November  14,  1927 

VOL.      I,  Complete  in  7  numbers. 
VOL.    II,  Complete  in  n  numbers. 
VOL.  Ill,  Incomplete.    2  numbers  issued. 
VOL.  IV,  Incomplete.     5  numbers  issued. 
VOL.    V,  Complete  in  i  number, 
VOL.  VI,  Complete  in  2  numbers. 


V 


* '1.1 


UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


